Economic Cost of Functional Neurologic Disorders: A Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Functional neurologic disorder (FND) represents genuine involuntary neurologic symptoms and signs including seizures, weakness, and sensory disturbance, which have characteristic clinical features, and represent a problem of voluntary control and perception despite normal basic structure of the nervous system. The historical view of FND as a diagnosis of exclusion can lead to unnecessary health care resource utilization and high direct and indirect economic costs. A systematic review was performed using Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines to assess these economic costs and to assess for any cost-effective treatments. METHODS: We searched electronic databases (PubMed, PsycInfo, MEDLINE, EMBASE, and the National Health Service Economic Evaluations Database of the University of York) for original, primary research publications between inception of the databases and April 8, 2022. A hand search of conference abstracts was also conducted. Key search terms included "functional neurologic disorder," "conversion disorder," and "functional seizures." Reviews, case reports, case series, and qualitative studies were excluded. We performed a descriptive and qualitative thematic analysis of the resulting studies. RESULTS: The search resulted in a total of 3,244 studies. Sixteen studies were included after screening and exclusion of duplicates. These included the following: cost-of-illness (COI) studies that were conducted alongside cohort studies without intervention and those that included a comparator group, for example, another neurologic disorder (n = 4); COI studies that were conducted alongside cohort studies without intervention and those that did not include a comparator group (n = 4); economic evaluations of interventions that were either pre-post cohort studies (n = 6) or randomized controlled trials (n = 2). Of these, 5 studies assessed active interventions, and 3 studies assessed costs before and after a definitive diagnosis of FND. Studies showed an excess annual cost associated with FND (range $4,964-$86,722 2021 US dollars), which consisted of both direct and large indirect costs. Studies showed promise that interventions, including provision of a definitive diagnosis, could reduce this cost (range 9%-90.7%). No cost-effective treatments were identified. Study comparison was limited by study design and location heterogeneity. DISCUSSION: FND is associated with a significant use of health care resources, resulting in economic costs to both the patient and the taxpayer and intangible losses. Interventions, including accurate diagnosis, seem to offer an avenue toward reducing these costs.

Neuroscience20 (BRAIN20, SPINE20, and MENTAL20) Health Initiative: A Global Consortium Addressing the Human and Economic Burden of Brain, Spine, and Mental Disorders Through Neurotech Innovations and Policies.

Neurological disorders significantly impact the world's economy due to their often chronic and life-threatening nature afflicting individuals which, in turn, creates a global disease burden. The Group of Twenty (G20) member nations, which represent the largest economies globally, should come together to formulate a plan on how to overcome this burden. The Neuroscience-20 (N20) initiative of the Society for Brain Mapping and Therapeutics (SBMT) is at the vanguard of this global collaboration to comprehensively raise awareness about brain, spine, and mental disorders worldwide. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive review of the various brain initiatives worldwide and highlight the need for cooperation and recommend ways to bring down costs associated with the discovery and treatment of neurological disorders. Our systematic search revealed that the cost of neurological and psychiatric disorders to the world economy by 2030 is roughly $16T. The cost to the economy of the United States is $1.5T annually and growing given the impact of COVID-19. We also discovered there is a shortfall of effective collaboration between nations and a lack of resources in developing countries. Current statistical analyses on the cost of neurological disorders to the world economy strongly suggest that there is a great need for investment in neurotechnology and innovation or fast-tracking therapeutics and diagnostics to curb these costs. During the current COVID-19 pandemic, SBMT, through this paper, intends to showcase the importance of worldwide collaborations to reduce the population's economic and health burden, specifically regarding neurological/brain, spine, and mental disorders.

Assessment of Emergency Department and Inpatient Use and Costs in Adult and Pediatric Functional Neurological Disorders.

Importance: There is limited information about health care use and costs in patients with functional neurological disorders (FNDs). Objective: To assess US emergency department (ED) and inpatient use and charges for FNDs. Design, Setting, and Participants: This economic evaluation used Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project data to assess all-payer (1) adult (age, ≥18 years) hospitalizations (2008-2017), (2) pediatric (age, 5-17 years) hospitalizations (2003, 2006, 2009, 2012, and 2016), and (3) adult and pediatric ED evaluations (2008-2017). International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification code 300.11 (conversion disorder) or 306.0 (musculoskeletal malfunction arising from mental factors) and International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, Tenth Revision, Clinical Modification codes for conversion disorder/functional neurological symptom disorder (F44.4 to F44.7) were used to conservatively define FNDs and to compare them with other neurological disorders that are associated with high levels of health care use. Analysis was performed between January 2019 and July 2020. Main Outcomes and Measures: Admission traits (eg, demographic characteristics of patients, length of stay, and discharge disposition) and hospital charges. Results: Compared with other neurological disorders in 2017, emergency FND evaluations of 36 359 adults (25 807 women [71.0%] and 3800 children (2733 girls [71.9%]) more frequently resulted in inpatient admissions (22 895 adult admissions [69.2% female] and 1264 pediatric admissions [73.4% ]). These FND admissions had a shorter mean (SEM) hospital length of stay (5.21 [0.15] days vs 6.03 [0.03] days, P < .001) but higher workup rates than admissions for comparable neurological diagnoses. Admissions for FNDs had low rates of inpatient physical therapy, occupational therapy, speech and language pathology, and psychiatric consultation. The total annual costs (a proxy for total costs in 2017 US dollars) were $1066 million (95% CI, $971-$1160 million) for adult FND inpatient charges in 2017 compared with $1241 million (95% CI, $1132-$1351 million) for anterior horn cell disease; $75 million (95% CI, $57-$92 million) for pediatric FND inpatient charges in 2012 compared with $86 million (95% CI, $63-$108 million) for demyelinating diseases; and $163 million (95% CI, $144-$182 million) for adult and pediatric ED visits in 2017 compared with $135 million (95% CI $111-$159 million) for refractory epilepsy. Total charges per admission for ED care of FNDs were higher than the other comparison groups in adults. Total costs and costs per admission for FNDs increased from 2008 to 2017 at a higher rate than that of other neurological disorders. Conclusions and Relevance: This economic evaluation found that the more than $1.2 billion and increasing annual costs for ED and inpatient care of FNDs were similar to other investigation-intensive and pharmacologically demanding neurological disorders. Unnecessary investigations and iatrogenic harm inflate costs at the expense of necessary but neglected psychiatric and rehabilitative treatments.

Increasing Out-of-Pocket Costs for Neurologic Care for Privately Insured Patients.

OBJECTIVE: To measure the out-of-pocket (OOP) costs of evaluation and management (E/M) services and common diagnostic testing for neurology patients. METHODS: Using a large, privately insured health care claims database, we identified patients with a neurologic visit or diagnostic test from 2001 to 2016 and assessed inflation-adjusted OOP costs for E/M visits, neuroimaging, and neurophysiologic testing. For each diagnostic service each year, we estimated the proportion of patients with OOP costs, the mean OOP cost, and the proportion of the total service cost paid OOP. We modeled OOP cost as a function of patient and insurance factors. RESULTS: We identified 3,724,342 patients. The most frequent neurologic services were E/M visits (78.5%), EMG/nerve conduction studies (NCS) (7.7%), MRIs (5.3%), and EEGs (4.5%). Annually, 86.5%-95.2% of patients paid OOP costs for E/M visits and 23.1%-69.5% for diagnostic tests. For patients paying any OOP cost, the mean OOP cost increased over time, most substantially for EEG, MRI, and E/M. OOP costs varied considerably; for an MRI in 2016, the 50th percentile paid $103.10 and the 95th percentile paid $875.40. The proportion of total service cost paid OOP increased. High deductible health plan (HDHP) enrollment was associated with higher OOP costs for MRI, EMG/NCS, and EEG. CONCLUSION: An increasing number of patients pay OOP for neurologic diagnostic services. These costs are rising and vary greatly across patients and tests. The cost sharing burden is particularly high for the growing population with HDHPs. In this setting, neurologic evaluation might result in financial hardship for patients.

Hospital resource use after hip reconstruction surgery in children with neurological complex chronic conditions.

AIM: To assess how co-occurring conditions influence recovery after hip reconstruction surgery in children with neurological complex chronic conditions (CCCs). METHOD: This was a retrospective analysis of 4058 children age 4 years or older with neurological CCCs who underwent hip reconstructive surgery between 1st January 2015 and 31st December 2018 in 49 children's hospitals. The presence of co-occurring chronic conditions was assessed using the Agency for Healthcare Research Chronic Condition Indicator system. Multivariable, hierarchical regression was used to assess the relationship between co-existing conditions and postoperative hospital length of stay (LOS), cost, and 30-day readmission rate. RESULTS: The most common co-occurring conditions were digestive (60.1%) and respiratory (37.9%). As the number of co-existing conditions increased from one to four or more, median LOS increased 67% (3d [interquartile range {IQR} 2-4d] to 5d [IQR 3-8d]); median hospital cost increased 41% ($20 248 [IQR $14 921-$27 842] to $28 692 [IQR $19 236-$45 887]); and readmission rates increased 250% (5.5-13.9%), p<0.001 for all. Of all specific co-existing chronic conditions, malnutrition was associated with the greatest increase in postoperative hospital resource use. INTERPRETATION: Co-occurring conditions, and malnutrition in particular, are a significant risk factor for prolonged, in-hospital recovery after hip reconstruction surgery in children with a neurological CCC. Further investigation is necessary to assess how improved preoperative optimization of multiple co-occurring conditions may improve postoperative outcomes and resource utilization. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: Children with neurological complex chronic conditions (CCCs) often develop hip disorders which require hip reconstruction surgery. Co-occurring conditions are common in children with neuromuscular CCCs. Having four or more chronic conditions was associated with a longer length of stay, increased costs, and higher odds of readmission. Malnutrition was a significant risk factor for prolonged hospitalization after hip reconstruction surgery.

Rising Drug Costs for Neurologic Diseases.

The cost of prescription drugs in the United States is rising like never before and has led to an inflection point where clinicians must consider the potential financial damage to the patient and to society related to the more expensive drugs available. Many of the highest-priced drugs are approved as orphan drugs, a legally defined status providing additional benefits to pharmaceutical companies that is intended to incentivize therapeutic development for rare diseases. The Orphan Drug Act has been a great success since it was enacted in 1983, resulting in the development of many innovative, life-changing, and even lifesaving drugs; however, high drug prices place patients at risk for personal bankruptcy, prescription abandonment, and higher rates of hospitalization. These negative consequences have become more widespread and severe because some companies exploit pricing via the market exclusivity granted to them under the provisions of the Orphan Drug Act. As more and more companies develop these drugs, the cost to society increases as does the capacity to tolerate unjustified prices. The societal effects of drug pricing must be considered through the prism of opportunity costs; that is, what benefit is lost by choosing to spend on one thing instead of another. Clinical- and economic-based analyses from independent groups such as the Institute for Clinical and Economic Review can help physicians understand the value of drugs (ie, the benefits relative to cost). When prescribing a high-priced medication, clinicians should discuss the drug's value and the associated opportunity cost with patients and have an open discussion about patients' ability to financially tolerate the treatment.

Effect of comorbid neuropsychiatric disorders on children and adolescents undergoing surgery for moderate and severe congenital heart disease.

BACKGROUND: Children and adolescents with congenital heart disease (CHD) are at an increased risk of neuropsychiatric disorders (NPDs). The purpose of this study is to determine how a comorbid NPD affects hospital outcomes and costs for CHD patients undergoing cardiac surgery. METHODS: Retrospective review of the 2000-2012 Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project Kids' Inpatient Databases for admissions 10 to 21 years old with an ICD-9 code for moderate or severe CHD and a procedure code for cardiopulmonary bypass as a marker for cardiac surgery; admissions with syndromes that could be associated with NPD were excluded. Demographics, hospital outcomes, and charges were compared between admissions with and without NPD ICD-9 codes using analysis of variance, independent samples Kruskal-Wallis, and χ2 , as appropriate. RESULTS: There were 4768 admissions with CHD and cardiac surgery: 4285 (90%) with no NPD, 93 (2%) with cognitive deficits, 390 (8%) with mood/behavior deficits. Patients with NPD had a longer length of stay and higher mean charges (P < .001 for both). Patients with mood/behavior deficits were older and patients with cognitive deficits were more likely female (P < .001 for both). CONCLUSIONS: Children and adolescents with moderate or severe CHD and NPD who undergo cardiac surgery incur longer hospital stays and higher charges. Recognizing and addressing the underlying NPDs may be important to improve postoperative progression for children and adolescents with CHD hospitalized for cardiac surgery.

Teleneurology during the COVID-19 pandemic: A step forward in modernizing medical care.

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic mandated rapid transition from face-to-face encounters to teleneurology visits. While teleneurology is regularly used in acute stroke care, its application in other branches of neurology was limited. Here we review how the recent pandemic has created a paradigm shift in caring for patients with chronic neurological disorders and how academic institutions have responded to the present need. METHOD: Literature review was performed to examine the recent changes in health policies. Number of outpatient visits and televisits in the Department of Neurology was reviewed from Yale University School of Medicine and Johns Hopkins School of Medicine to examine the road to transition to televisit. RESULTS: The federal government and the insurance providers extended their supports during the COVID-19 pandemic. Several rules and regulations regarding teleneurology were revised and relaxed to address the current need. New technologies for video conferencing were incorporated. The transition to televisits went smoothly in both the institutions and number of face-to-face encounters decreased dramatically along with a rapid rise in televisits within 2 weeks of the declaration of national emergency. CONCLUSION AND RELEVANCE: The need for "social distancing" during the COVID-19 pandemic has created a major surge in the number of teleneurology visits, which will probably continue for the next few months. It may have initiated a more permanent transition to virtual technology incorporated medical care.

Education-based Solutions to the Global Burden of Neurosurgical Disease.

OBJECTIVE: Low- and middle-income countries continue to suffer from a lack of access to basic neurosurgical care. The 2015 Lancet Commission on Global Surgery estimated essential surgical care was lacking to 5 billion people and that 143 million essential surgeries were not performed annually. A significant part of this need is neurosurgical care. Countries lacking basic neurosurgical services cannot have a true trauma system, or complete care for tumor, stroke, pain, and congenital defects in children. Episodic service missions from developed countries cannot fill these large gaps. To maximize the impact of global neurosurgery, the framework through which humanitarian neurosurgeons respond to international need should incorporate sustainable practices that empower the recipient population. METHODS: A historical and anecdotal review of global neurosurgery. RESULTS: The success of sustainable, locally championed neurosurgery educational programs will be dependent on the simultaneous, parallel development of anesthesia, critical care, nursing, and biomedical services. Each of these disciplines will reciprocally benefit from these neurosurgical programs. These programs cannot exist in a vacuum. They will require the thoughtful collaboration of all major neurosurgical societies with a humanitarian emphasis while championing the local surgeons in the area of need who must assume leadership to achieve a self-sustaining program. CONCLUSIONS: To meet the global need for neurosurgical care, self-sustaining neurosurgical programs must be locally developed in the countries of need. International support must be built on "Service through Education" rather the service alone.

Effect of comorbidities on direct cost among type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) patients in tertiary care government hospital in Uttarakhand, India: A primary data analysis of out of pocket expenditure.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: The objective of present study was to estimate and compare the direct cost between diabetics and age and gender matched non-diabetics. It also aimed to estimate and compare the effect of various comorbidities on direct cost between cases and controls, while simultaneously trying to determine the predictors of direct cost among T2DM patients. METHODS: A hospital-based pair matched case-control study was conducted in a tertiary care hospital in Garhwal division of Uttarakhand, India to accomplish the objectives of study. Regression analysis was applied to determine the predictors of direct cost among diabetics. RESULTS: Mean annual direct cost among diabetics was estimated to be US$ 104.6 (Indian Rupees (INR) 7338.9)) in comparison to US$ 27.8 (INR 1905.8) among non-diabetics. The total cost among cases was significantly higher than controls, if they had comorbidities from CVS, nervous, ophthalmic, respiratory and musculoskeletal system. Gender, education, duration of diabetes and number of comorbidities were significant predictors in estimating the direct cost among cases. For each one-year increase in duration of diabetes, direct cost increased by 13.1 unit. CONCLUSIONS: The study provides us conclusive evidence of significantly higher expenditure among diabetics in comparison to non-diabetics. An effect on direct cost among diabetics was observed with types and increasing number of comorbidities.

The global burden of neurological disorders: translating evidence into policy.

Neurological disorders are the leading cause of disability and the second leading cause of death worldwide. In the past 30 years, the absolute numbers of deaths and people with disabilities owing to neurological diseases have risen substantially, particularly in low-income and middle-income countries, and further increases are expected globally as a result of population growth and ageing. This rise in absolute numbers of people affected suggests that advances in prevention and management of major neurological disorders are not sufficiently effective to counter global demographic changes. Urgent measures to reduce this burden are therefore needed. Because resources for health care and research are already overstretched, priorities need to be set to guide policy makers, governments, and funding organisations to develop and implement action plans for prevention, health care, and research to tackle the growing challenge of neurological disorders.

Out-of-pocket costs are on the rise for commonly prescribed neurologic medications.

OBJECTIVE: To determine out-of-pocket costs for neurologic medications in 5 common neurologic diseases. METHODS: Utilizing a large, privately insured, health care claims database from 2004 to 2016, we captured out-of-pocket medication costs for patients seen by outpatient neurologists with multiple sclerosis (MS), peripheral neuropathy, epilepsy, dementia, and Parkinson disease (PD). We compared out-of-pocket costs for those in high-deductible health plans compared to traditional plans and explored cumulative out-of-pocket costs over the first 2 years after diagnosis across conditions with high- (MS) and low/medium-cost (epilepsy) medications. RESULTS: The population consisted of 105,355 patients with MS, 314,530 with peripheral neuropathy, 281,073 with epilepsy, 120,720 with dementia, and 90,801 with PD. MS medications had the fastest rise in monthly out-of-pocket expenses (mean [SD] $15 [$23] in 2004, $309 [$593] in 2016) with minimal differences between medications. Out-of-pocket costs for brand name medications in the other conditions also rose considerably. Patients in high-deductible health plans incurred approximately twice the monthly out-of-pocket expense as compared to those not in these plans ($661 [$964] vs $246 [$472] in MS, $40 [$94] vs $18 [$46] in epilepsy in 2016). Cumulative 2-year out-of-pocket costs rose almost linearly over time in MS ($2,238 [$3,342]) and epilepsy ($230 [$443]). CONCLUSIONS: Out-of-pocket costs for neurologic medications have increased considerably over the last 12 years, particularly for those in high-deductible health plans. Out-of-pocket costs vary widely both across and within conditions. To minimize patient financial burden, neurologists require access to precise cost information when making treatment decisions.

¿Qué aporta la neuroimagen en pacientes con vértigo y mareo? Análisis coste-utilidad / What do MRI and CT scan provide us in patients with vertigo and dizziness? A cost-utility analysis

Introducción. Vértigo y mareo son síntomas que suponen una carga significativa en el hospital e involucran a varias especialidades. Existen pocas guías sobre la solicitud de pruebas radiológicas ante estos síntomas. Objetivos. Conocer qué perfil de pacientes con vértigo y mareo tiene realizadas pruebas de neuroimagen, cuantificar y describir los hallazgos radiológicos, y analizar el coste-utilidad de la tomografía computarizada (TC) y la resonancia magnética (RM) en pacientes con estos síntomas. Pacientes y métodos. Estudio descriptivo en el que se seleccionan pacientes remitidos al hospital por vértigo y mareo. Se analizan características demográficas y clínicas y se cuantifican las pruebas de neuroimagen solicitadas. Se describen los hallazgos radiológicos, se valora su relevancia en el diagnóstico y se detalla el coste. Resultados. Se identifica a 493 pacientes, el 60% tiene realizada una prueba de neuroimagen; son pacientes de más edad, depresivos y que han acudido a urgencias por vértigo. La prueba más realizada fue la TC de cráneo sin contraste (el 5% identifica la causa del síntoma). La que presentó más hallazgos significativos fue la RM de la base del cráneo (17,7%). Las 286 pruebas de imagen solicitadas por vértigo costaron 56.741 euros. El gasto para obtener un diagnóstico radiológico fue de 1.576 euros. Conclusiones. Se realiza un gran número de TC y RM de cabeza en pacientes con vértigo y mareo. Es recomendable tener un diagnóstico de sospecha previo a partir de la anamnesis y la exploración para hacer una buena selección de las pruebas que hay que solicitar. En más del 90% de los casos no se muestran hallazgos radiológicos en relación con el vértigo

Introduction. Vertigo and dizziness are symptoms with a significant burden in the hospital and involve several specialties. There are few guidelines of radiological tests for these symptoms. Aims. To know which profile of patients with vertigo and dizziness has neuroimaging tests, quantify and describe the radiological findings. To analyze the cost-utility of CT and MRI in the study of these patients Patients and methods. Descriptive study, we selected patients referred to the hospital for vertigo and dizziness. We analyze demographic and clinical characteristics and quantify the neuroimaging tests requested. We describe the radiological findings, assess their relevance in the diagnosis and detail the cost-benefit. Results. We identified 493 patients, those with neuroimaging test (60%) are older, depressed and frequented the emergency department because of vertigo. The most requested test was the cranial CT scan (5% identifies the cause of the symptom). MRI of the inner ear and cerebellopontine angle was the test that presented the most significant findings (17.7%). The 286 image tests requested for vertigo cost 56,741 euros. The cost for a positive test was 1,576 euros. Conclusions. A large number of head CT and MRI are made in patients with vertigo and dizziness. A clinical suspicion is recommended from the anamnesis and exploration to make a good selection of test to request. In more than 90% of cases, radiological findings are not shown in relation to vertigo

Global, regional, and national burden of neurological disorders, 1990-2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016.

BACKGROUND: Neurological disorders are increasingly recognised as major causes of death and disability worldwide. The aim of this analysis from the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) 2016 is to provide the most comprehensive and up-to-date estimates of the global, regional, and national burden from neurological disorders. METHODS: We estimated prevalence, incidence, deaths, and disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs; the sum of years of life lost [YLLs] and years lived with disability [YLDs]) by age and sex for 15 neurological disorder categories (tetanus, meningitis, encephalitis, stroke, brain and other CNS cancers, traumatic brain injury, spinal cord injury, Alzheimer's disease and other dementias, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, motor neuron diseases, idiopathic epilepsy, migraine, tension-type headache, and a residual category for other less common neurological disorders) in 195 countries from 1990 to 2016. DisMod-MR 2.1, a Bayesian meta-regression tool, was the main method of estimation of prevalence and incidence, and the Cause of Death Ensemble model (CODEm) was used for mortality estimation. We quantified the contribution of 84 risks and combinations of risk to the disease estimates for the 15 neurological disorder categories using the GBD comparative risk assessment approach. FINDINGS: Globally, in 2016, neurological disorders were the leading cause of DALYs (276 million [95% UI 247-308]) and second leading cause of deaths (9·0 million [8·8-9·4]). The absolute number of deaths and DALYs from all neurological disorders combined increased (deaths by 39% [34-44] and DALYs by 15% [9-21]) whereas their age-standardised rates decreased (deaths by 28% [26-30] and DALYs by 27% [24-31]) between 1990 and 2016. The only neurological disorders that had a decrease in rates and absolute numbers of deaths and DALYs were tetanus, meningitis, and encephalitis. The four largest contributors of neurological DALYs were stroke (42·2% [38·6-46·1]), migraine (16·3% [11·7-20·8]), Alzheimer's and other dementias (10·4% [9·0-12·1]), and meningitis (7·9% [6·6-10·4]). For the combined neurological disorders, age-standardised DALY rates were significantly higher in males than in females (male-to-female ratio 1·12 [1·05-1·20]), but migraine, multiple sclerosis, and tension-type headache were more common and caused more burden in females, with male-to-female ratios of less than 0·7. The 84 risks quantified in GBD explain less than 10% of neurological disorder DALY burdens, except stroke, for which 88·8% (86·5-90·9) of DALYs are attributable to risk factors, and to a lesser extent Alzheimer's disease and other dementias (22·3% [11·8-35·1] of DALYs are risk attributable) and idiopathic epilepsy (14·1% [10·8-17·5] of DALYs are risk attributable). INTERPRETATION: Globally, the burden of neurological disorders, as measured by the absolute number of DALYs, continues to increase. As populations are growing and ageing, and the prevalence of major disabling neurological disorders steeply increases with age, governments will face increasing demand for treatment, rehabilitation, and support services for neurological disorders. The scarcity of established modifiable risks for most of the neurological burden demonstrates that new knowledge is required to develop effective prevention and treatment strategies. FUNDING: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.

Economic Evaluation of Stem Cell Therapies in Neurological Diseases: A Systematic Review.

OBJECTIVES: To examine economic evaluation studies of stem cell therapies (SCTs) in neurological disorders and to provide an overview of the quality of the economic evidence available on this topic. METHODS: The review examined studies that performed an economic evaluation of the use of stem cells in adult patients with neurological diseases and that were published in English during the period 2007 to 2017. Data analyzed and reported included study population, disease indication, main analytical approaches for the economic analysis and perspective, key assumptions made or tested in sensitivity analyses, cost outcomes, estimates of incremental cost effectiveness, and approaches to quantifying decision uncertainty. RESULTS: A total of three studies reporting on the findings of the economic evaluation of the use of SCT in stroke, Parkinson disease, and secondary progressive multiple sclerosis, respectively, were identified. All three studies conducted a cost-utility analysis using decision-analytic models and reported an incremental cost per quality-adjusted life-years gained (incremental cost-effectiveness ratio) versus standard care. These studies reported meaningful cost savings in stroke, Parkinson disease, and secondary progressive multiple sclerosis in the base-case scenarios. CONCLUSIONS: Despite significant progress in clinical research in the use of SCT in neurological diseases, economic evaluation of these therapies is still at a nascent stage. Given the early stage of research inputs (clinical and cost outcomes data) into the models per se, further research is urgently needed to enable meaningful assessment of the cost effectiveness of these advanced therapies and to ensure sustainable access for population groups most likely to benefit in clinical practice.