ABSTRACT
Quercetin, rutin, naringin, hesperidin and chrysin were tested as substrates for chloroperoxidase to produce reactive quinones to graft onto chitosan. Quercetin and rutin quinones were successfully chemically attached to low molecular weight chitosan. The quercetin-modified chitosan showed an enhancement of plastic, antioxidant and antimicrobial properties as well as of thermal degradability. Finally, chitosan-quercetin films visibly decreased enzymatic oxidation when applied to Opuntia ficus indica cladodes.
Subject(s)
Anti-Infective Agents/chemistry , Antioxidants/chemistry , Chitosan/chemistry , Chloride Peroxidase/chemistry , Food Additives/chemistry , Quercetin/chemistry , Anti-Infective Agents/pharmacology , Antioxidants/pharmacology , Bacteria/drug effects , Bacteria/growth & development , Calorimetry , Candida albicans/drug effects , Candida albicans/growth & development , Chloride Peroxidase/metabolism , Color , Flavanones/chemistry , Flavanones/pharmacology , Flavonoids/chemistry , Flavonoids/pharmacology , Food Additives/pharmacology , Hesperidin/chemistry , Hesperidin/pharmacology , Maillard Reaction/drug effects , Opuntia/drug effects , Opuntia/metabolism , Oxidation-Reduction , Plant Stems/drug effects , Plant Stems/metabolism , Quercetin/pharmacology , Rutin/chemistry , Rutin/pharmacology , SpectrophotometryABSTRACT
The organ-specific accumulation, spatial distribution, and chemical speciation of selenium (Se) were previously unknown for any species of cactus. We investigated Se in Opuntia ficus-indica using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, microfocused x-ray fluorescence elemental and chemical mapping (µXRF), Se K-edge x-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) spectroscopy, and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). µXRF showed Se concentrated inside small conic, vestigial leaves (cladode tips), the cladode vasculature, and the seed embryos. Se K-edge XANES demonstrated that approximately 96% of total Se in cladode, fruit juice, fruit pulp, and seed is carbon-Se-carbon (C-Se-C). Micro and bulk XANES analysis showed that cladode tips contained both selenate and C-Se-C forms. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry quantification of Se in high-performance liquid chromatography fractions followed by LC-MS structural identification showed selenocystathionine-to-selenomethionine (SeMet) ratios of 75:25, 71:29, and 32:68, respectively in cladode, fruit, and seed. Enzymatic digestions and subsequent analysis confirmed that Se was mainly present in a "free" nonproteinaceous form inside cladode and fruit, while in the seed, Se was incorporated into proteins associated with lipids. µXRF chemical mapping illuminated the specific location of Se reduction and assimilation from selenate accumulated in the cladode tips into the two LC-MS-identified C-Se-C forms before they were transported into the cladode mesophyll. We conclude that Opuntia is a secondary Se-accumulating plant whose fruit and cladode contain mostly free selenocystathionine and SeMet, while seeds contain mainly SeMet in protein. When eaten, the organic Se forms in Opuntia fruit, cladode, and seed may improve health, increase Se mineral nutrition, and help prevent multiple human cancers.
Subject(s)
Dietary Supplements , Droughts , Food, Fortified , Opuntia/metabolism , Salt-Tolerant Plants/metabolism , Selenium/metabolism , Sodium Chloride/pharmacology , Acids , Chemical Fractionation , Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid , Chromatography, Liquid , Crops, Agricultural/drug effects , Crops, Agricultural/metabolism , Endopeptidase K/metabolism , Fruit/drug effects , Fruit/metabolism , Mass Spectrometry , Opuntia/drug effects , Organ Specificity/drug effects , Plant Extracts , Reproducibility of Results , Salt-Tolerant Plants/drug effects , Selenium Compounds/metabolism , Selenium Compounds/pharmacology , Selenium Oxides , Spectrometry, X-Ray Emission , Spectrophotometry, Atomic , X-Ray Absorption SpectroscopyABSTRACT
Growth, gas exchange rates, and carbohydrate content were studied for developing fruits of the cultivated cactus Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Miller, including effects of drought and exogenous gibberellic acid (GA3). Fruit development required 110 d from the time of bud differentiation to ripening at 80 d after anthesis, when the fruit mass averaged 67 g. Stomatal conductance and net CO2 uptake rates for fruits were higher during the night; they were maximal at 7 d before anthesis and decreased as development progressed. Fruits undergoing drought, imposed by detaching terminal stems bearing fruits, were 50% smaller than the control at 80 d after anthesis and did not ripen. Fruits injected with 2 ml of 500 ppm GA3 were 30% smaller than the control at 80 d after anthesis; they contained a large proportion of aborted seeds that produced a weak sink signal for dry mass accumulation. Gas exchange was higher at 21 d after anthesis for fruits treated with GA3. Total soluble sugars represented 40% of the fruit's dry mass until 45 d after anthesis, when the sugar content rapidly increased, reaching 90% at 73 d after anthesis. Such an increase was not observed for fruits treated with GA3, and the sugar content for fruits undergoing drought remained low throughout development. Starch content increased for developing fruits of O. ficus-indica until 14 d after anthesis and, except for the fruits undergoing drought, decreased thereafter. Fruit development for O. ficus-indica is apparently regulated by water availability as well as hormonal signals originating both within and outside the fruit.
