Direct Visualization of a 26 kDa Protein by Cryo-Electron Microscopy Aided by a Small Scaffold Protein.

Cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM)-based structure determination of small proteins is hindered by the technical challenges associated with low signal-to-noise ratios of their particle images in intrinsically noisy micrographs. One solution is to attach the target protein to a large protein scaffold to increase its apparent size and, therefore, image contrast. Here we report a novel scaffold design based on a trimeric helical protein, E. coli ornithine transcarbamylase (OTC), fused to human ubiquitin. As a proof of principle, we demonstrated the ability to resolve a cryo-EM map of a 26 kDa human ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase (UCHL1) attached to the C-terminus of ubiquitin as part of the trimeric assembly. The results revealed conformational changes in UCHL1 upon binding to ubiquitin, namely, a significant displacement of α-helix 2, which was also observed by X-ray crystallography. Our findings demonstrated the potential of the trimeric OTC scaffold design for studying a large number of ubiquitin interacting proteins by cryo-EM.

Recombinant ArgF PLGA nanoparticles enhances BCG induced immune responses against Mycobacterium bovis infection.

Mycobacterium bovis (M. bovis) is a member of mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC), and a causative agent of chronic respiratory disease in a wide range of hosts. Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) vaccine is mostly used for the prevention of childhood tuberculosis. Further substantial implications are required for the development and evaluation of new tuberculosis (TB) vaccines as well as improving the role of BCG in TB control strategies. In this study, we prepared PLGA nanoparticles encapsulated with argF antigen (argF-NPs). We hypothesized, that argF nanoparticles mediate immune responses of BCG vaccine in mice models of M. bovis infection. We observed that mice vaccinated with argF-NPs exhibited a significant increase in secretory IFN-γ, CD4+ T cells response and mucosal secretory IgA against M. bovis infection. In addition, a marked increase was observed in the level of secretory IL-1ß, TNF-α and IL-10 both in vitro and in vivo upon argF-NPs vaccination. Furthermore, argF-NPs vaccination resulted in a significant reduction in the inflammatory lesions in the lung's tissues, minimized the losses in total body weight and reduced M. bovis burden in infected mice. Our results indicate that BCG prime-boost strategy might be a promising measure for the prevention against M. bovis infection by induction of CD4+ T cells responses and mucosal antibodies.

Clinical and structural insights into potential dominant negative triggers of proximal urea cycle disorders.

Despite biochemical and genetic testing being the golden standards for identification of proximal urea cycle disorders (UCDs), genotype-phenotype correlations are often unclear. Co-occurring partial defects affecting more than one gene have not been demonstrated so far in proximal UCDs. Here, we analyzed the mutational spectrum of 557 suspected proximal UCD individuals. We probed oligomerizing forms of NAGS, CPS1 and OTC, and evaluated the surface exposure of residues mutated in heterozygously affected individuals. BN-PAGE and gel-filtration chromatography were employed to discover protein-protein interactions within recombinant enzymes. From a total of 281 confirmed patients, only 15 were identified as "heterozygous-only" candidates (i.e. single defective allele). Within these cases, the only missense variants to potentially qualify as dominant negative triggers were CPS1 p.Gly401Arg and NAGS p.Thr181Ala and p.Tyr512Cys, as assessed by residue oligomerization capacity and surface exposure. However, all three candidates seem to participate in critical intramolecular functions, thus, unlikely to facilitate protein-protein interactions. This interpretation is further supported by BN-PAGE and gel-filtration analyses revealing no multiprotein proximal urea cycle complex formation. Collectively, genetic analysis, structural considerations and in vitro experiments point against a prominent role of dominant negative effects in human proximal UCDs.

Ornithine carbamoyltransferase from psychrophiles to thermophiles: structural evolution of catalytic fold to accommodate physiological diversity.

Here, we have analyzed the enzyme ornithine carbamoyltransferase (OCTase) in different classes of microorganisms belonging to psychrophiles, mesophiles and thermophiles. This OCTase catalyzes the formation of citrulline from carbamoyl phosphate (CP) and ornithine (ORN) in arginine biosynthesis pathway and has certain unique adaptations to regulate metabolic pathways in extreme conditions. The tertiary structure of OCTase showed two binding domains, the CP domain and ORN-binding domain at N and C terminals, respectively. We propose general acid-base catalysis in Pseudomonas gessardii between His259 and Asp220 in which later may act as a recipient of proton in the process. The comparative docking analysis showed that substrate-binding loops have been evolved to accommodate their lifestyles across the physiological temperature range where two substrates bind on two distinct loops in psychrophiles and mesophiles, whereas both the substrates bind on a single-substrate-binding loop in thermophiles and bring down the flexibility of the active site pocket to improve its evolutionary fitness.

Clinical and genetic analysis of five Chinese patients with urea cycle disorders.

BACKGROUND: The urea cycle plays a key role in preventing the accumulation of toxic nitrogenous waste products, including two essential enzymes: ornithine transcarbamylase (OTC) and argininosuccinate lyase (ASL). Ornithine transcarbamylase deficiency (OTCD) results from mutations in the OTC. Meanwhile, argininosuccinate lyase deficiency (ASLD) is caused by mutations in the ASL. METHODS: Blood tandem mass spectrometric analysis and urea organic acidemia screening were performed on five Chinese cases, including three OTCD and two ASLD patients. Next-generation sequencing was then used to make a definite diagnosis, and the related variants were validated by Sanger sequencing. RESULTS: The five patients exhibited severe clinical symptoms, with abnormal biochemical analysis and amino acids profile. Genetic analysis revealed two variants [c.77G>A (p.Arg26Gln); c.116G>T (p.Gly39Val)] in the OTC, as well as two variants [c.1311T>G (p.Tyr437*); c.961T>A (p.Tyr321Asn)] in the ASL. Conservation analysis showed that the amino acids of the two novel mutations were highly conserved in different species and were predicted to be possibly damaging with several in silico prediction programs. 3D-modeling analysis indicated that the two novel missense variants might result in modest distortions of the OTC and ASL protein structures, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Two novel variants expand the mutational spectrums of the OTC and ASL. All the results may contribute to a better understanding of the clinical course and genetic characteristics of patients with urea cycle disorders.

Probing remote residues important for catalysis in Escherichia coli ornithine transcarbamoylase.

Understanding how enzymes achieve their tremendous catalytic power is a major question in biochemistry. Greater understanding is also needed for enzyme engineering applications. In many cases, enzyme efficiency and specificity depend on residues not in direct contact with the substrate, termed remote residues. This work focuses on Escherichia coli ornithine transcarbamoylase (OTC), which plays a central role in amino acid metabolism. OTC has been reported to undergo an induced-fit conformational change upon binding its first substrate, carbamoyl phosphate (CP), and several residues important for activity have been identified. Using computational methods based on the computed chemical properties from theoretical titration curves, sequence-based scores derived from evolutionary history, and protein surface topology, residues important for catalytic activity were predicted. The roles of these residues in OTC activity were tested by constructing mutations at predicted positions, followed by steady-state kinetics assays and substrate binding studies with the variants. First-layer mutations R57A and D231A, second-layer mutation H272L, and third-layer mutation E299Q, result in 57- to 450-fold reductions in kcat/KM with respect to CP and 44- to 580-fold reductions with respect to ornithine. Second-layer mutations D140N and Y160S also reduce activity with respect to ornithine. Most variants had decreased stability relative to wild-type OTC, with variants H272L, H272N, and E299Q having the greatest decreases. Variants H272L, E299Q, and R57A also show compromised CP binding. In addition to direct effects on catalytic activity, effects on overall protein stability and substrate binding were observed that reveal the intricacies of how these residues contribute to catalysis.

Molecular characterization and ornithine-urea cycle genes expression in air-breathing magur catfish (Clarias magur) during exposure to high external ammonia.

The air-breathing magur catfish (Clarias magur) is a potential ureogenic teleost because of its functional ornithine-urea cycle (OUC), unlike typical freshwater teleosts. The ability to convert ammonia waste to urea was a significant step towards land-based life forms from aquatic predecessors. Here we investigated the molecular characterization of some OUC genes and the molecular basis of stimulation of ureogenesis via the OUC in magur catfish. The deduced amino acid sequences from the complete cDNA coding sequences of ornithine transcarbamyolase, argininosuccinate synthase, and argininosuccinate lyase indicated that phylogenetically magur catfish is very close to other ureogenic catfishes. Ammonia exposure led to a significant induction of major OUC genes and the gene products in hepatic and in certain non-hepatic tissues of magur catfish. Hence, it is reasonable to assume that the induction of ureogenesis in magur catfish under hyper-ammonia stress is mediated through the activation of OUC genes as an adaptational strategy.

Comparative folding analyses of unknotted versus trefoil-knotted ornithine transcarbamylases suggest stabilizing effects of protein knots.

Ornithine transcarbamylases (OTCs) are conserved enzymes involved in arginine biosynthesis in microbes and the urea cycle in mammals. Recent bioinformatics analyses identified two unique OTC variants, N-succinyl-l-ornithine transcarbamylase from Bacteroides fragilis (BfSOTC) and N-acetyl-l-ornithine transcarbamylase from Xanthomonas campestris (XcAOTC). These two variants diverged from other OTCs during evolution despite sharing the common tertiary and quaternary structures, with the exception that the substrate recognition motifs are topologically knotted. The OTC family therefore offers a unique opportunity for investigating the importance of protein knots in biological functions and folding stabilities. Using hydrogen-deuterium exchange-coupled mass spectrometry, we compared the native dynamics of BfSOTC and XcAOTC with respect to the unknotted ornithine transcarbamylase from Escherichia coli (EcOTC). Our results suggest that, in addition to substrate specificity, the knotted structures in XcAOTC and BfSOTC may play an important role in stabilizing the folding dynamics, particularly around the knotted structural elements.

PFstats: A Network-Based Open Tool for Protein Family Analysis.

PFstats is a software developed for the extraction of useful information from protein multiple sequence alignments. By analyzing positional conservation and residue coevolution networks, the software allows the identification of structurally and functionally important residue groups and the discovery of probable functional subclasses. Furthermore, it contains tools for the identification of the possible biological significance of these findings. PFstats contains methods for maximizing the significance of alignments through filtering and weighting, residue conservation and coevolution analysis, automatic UniprotKb queries for residue-position annotation and many possible data visualization methods.

Crystal structure analysis of ornithine transcarbamylase from Thermus thermophilus --HB8 provides insights on the plasticity of the active site.

The enzymatic biosynthesis of L-arginine involves complex, sequential action of many enzymes and ornithine transcarbamylase (OTCase) is one of the essential enzymes in the pathway. In mammals OTCase is part of the urea cycle. Arginine is used in a variety of pharmaceutical and industrial applications and therefore engineering arginine biosynthesis pathway for overproduction of arginine has gained importance. On the other hand, it was found that detrimental mutations in the human OTCase gene resulted clinical hyperammonemia, with subsequent neurological damage. Therefore a better understanding of the structure-function relationship of this enzyme from various sources could be useful for modifying its enzymatic action. Here we report the structure of ornithine transcarbamylase of Thermus thermophilus HB8 (aTtOTCase) at 2.0 Å resolution. On comparison with its homologs, aTtOTCase showed maximum variation at the substrate binding loops namely 80s and SMG/240s loops. The active site geometry of aTtOTCase is unique among its homologs where the side chain of certain residues (Leu57, Arg58 and Arg288) is oriented differently. To study the structural insights of substrate binding in aTtOTCase, docking of carbamoyl phosphate (CP) and ornithine (Orn) was carried out sequentially. Both substrates were unable to bind in a proper orientation in the active site pocket and this could be due to the differently oriented side chains. This suggests that the active site geometry should also undergo fine tuning besides the large structural changes as the enzyme switches from completely open to a substrate bound closed state.

A new mouse model of mild ornithine transcarbamylase deficiency (spf-j) displays cerebral amino acid perturbations at baseline and upon systemic immune activation.

Ornithine transcarbamylase deficiency (OTCD, OMIM# 311250) is an inherited X-linked urea cycle disorder that is characterized by hyperammonemia and orotic aciduria. In this report, we describe a new animal model of OTCD caused by a spontaneous mutation in the mouse Otc gene (c.240T>A, p.K80N). This transversion in exon 3 of ornithine transcarbamylase leads to normal levels of mRNA with low levels of mature protein and is homologous to a mutation that has also been described in a single patient affected with late-onset OTCD. With higher residual enzyme activity, spf-J were found to have normal plasma ammonia and orotate. Baseline plasma amino acid profiles were consistent with mild OTCD: elevated glutamine, and lower citrulline and arginine. In contrast to WT, spf-J displayed baseline elevations in cerebral amino acids with depletion following immune challenge with polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid. Our results indicate that the mild spf-J mutation constitutes a new mouse model that is suitable for mechanistic studies of mild OTCD and the exploration of cerebral pathophysiology during acute decompensation that characterizes proximal urea cycle dysfunction in humans.

Structural characterization of the enzymes composing the arginine deiminase pathway in Mycoplasma penetrans.

The metabolism of arginine towards ATP synthesis has been considered a major source of energy for microorganisms such as Mycoplasma penetrans in anaerobic conditions. Additionally, this pathway has also been implicated in pathogenic and virulence mechanism of certain microorganisms, i.e. protection from acidic stress during infection. In this work we present the crystal structures of the three enzymes composing the gene cluster of the arginine deiminase pathway from M. penetrans: arginine deiminase (ADI), ornithine carbamoyltransferase (OTC) and carbamate kinase (CK). The arginine deiminase (ADI) structure has been refined to 2.3 Å resolution in its apo-form, displaying an "open" conformation of the active site of the enzyme in comparison to previous complex structures with substrate intermediates. The active site pocket of ADI is empty, with some of the catalytic and binding residues far from their active positions, suggesting major conformational changes upon substrate binding. Ornithine carbamoyltransferase (OTC) has been refined in two crystal forms at 2.5 Å and 2.6 Å resolution, respectively, both displaying an identical dodecameric structure with a 23-point symmetry. The dodecameric structure of OTC represents the highest level of organization in this protein family and in M.penetrans it is constituted by a novel interface between the four catalytic homotrimers. Carbamate kinase (CK) has been refined to 2.5 Å resolution and its structure is characterized by the presence of two ion sulfates in the active site, one in the carbamoyl phosphate binding site and the other in the ß-phosphate ADP binding pocket of the enzyme. The CK structure also shows variations in some of the elements that regulate the catalytic activity of the enzyme. The relatively low number of metabolic pathways and the relevance in human pathogenesis of Mycoplasma penetrans places the arginine deiminase pathway enzymes as potential targets to design specific inhibitors against this human parasite.

Structure of anabolic ornithine carbamoyltransferase from Campylobacter jejuni at 2.7 Å resolution.

Anabolic ornithine transcarbamoylase (aOTC) catalyzes the reaction between carbamoyl phosphate (CP) and L-ornithine (ORN) to form L-citrulline and phosphate in the urea cycle and L-arginine biosynthesis. The crystal structure of unliganded aOTC from Campylobacter jejuni (Cje aOTC) was determined at 2.7 Å resolution and refined to an R(work) of 20.3% and an R(free) of 24.0%. Cje aOTC is a trimer that forms a head-to-head pseudohexamer in the asymmetric unit. Each monomer is composed of an N-terminal CP-binding domain and a C-terminal ORN-binding domain joined by two interdomain helices. The Cje aOTC structure presents an open conformation of the enzyme with a relatively flexible orientation of the ORN-binding domain respective to the CP-binding domain. The conformation of the B2-H3 loop (residues 68-78), which is involved in binding CP in an adjacent subunit of the trimer, differs from that seen in homologous proteins with CP bound. The loop containing the ORN-binding motif (DxxxSMG, residues 223-230) has a conformation that is different from those observed in unliganded OTC structures from other species, but is similar to those in structures with bound ORN analogs. The major differences in tertiary structure between Cje aOTC and human aOTC are described.

The role of non-native interactions in the folding of knotted proteins.

Stochastic simulations of coarse-grained protein models are used to investigate the propensity to form knots in early stages of protein folding. The study is carried out comparatively for two homologous carbamoyltransferases, a natively-knotted N-acetylornithine carbamoyltransferase (AOTCase) and an unknotted ornithine carbamoyltransferase (OTCase). In addition, two different sets of pairwise amino acid interactions are considered: one promoting exclusively native interactions, and the other additionally including non-native quasi-chemical and electrostatic interactions. With the former model neither protein shows a propensity to form knots. With the additional non-native interactions, knotting propensity remains negligible for the natively-unknotted OTCase while for AOTCase it is much enhanced. Analysis of the trajectories suggests that the different entanglement of the two transcarbamylases follows from the tendency of the C-terminal to point away from (for OTCase) or approach and eventually thread (for AOTCase) other regions of partly-folded protein. The analysis of the OTCase/AOTCase pair clarifies that natively-knotted proteins can spontaneously knot during early folding stages and that non-native sequence-dependent interactions are important for promoting and disfavouring early knotting events.

Reversible post-translational carboxylation modulates the enzymatic activity of N-acetyl-L-ornithine transcarbamylase.

N-Acetyl-l-ornithine transcarbamylase (AOTCase), rather than ornithine transcarbamylase (OTCase), is the essential carbamylase enzyme in the arginine biosynthesis of several plant and human pathogens. The specificity of this unique enzyme provides a potential target for controlling the spread of these pathogens. Recently, several crystal structures of AOTCase from Xanthomonas campestris (xc) have been determined. In these structures, an unexplained electron density at the tip of the Lys302 side chain was observed. Using (13)C NMR spectroscopy, we show herein that Lys302 is post-translationally carboxylated. The structure of wild-type AOTCase in a complex with the bisubstrate analogue N(delta)-(phosphonoacetyl)-N(alpha)-acetyl-l-ornithine (PALAO) indicates that the carboxyl group on Lys302 forms a strong hydrogen bonding network with surrounding active site residues, Lys252, Ser253, His293, and Glu92 from the adjacent subunit either directly or via a water molecule. Furthermore, the carboxyl group is involved in binding N-acetyl-l-ornithine via a water molecule. Activity assays with the wild-type enzyme and several mutants demonstrate that the post-translational modification of lysine 302 has an important role in catalysis.

Molecular and biochemical features of the mitochondrial enzyme ornithine transcarbamylase: a possible new role as a signaling factor.

Ornithine transcarbamylase (OTC; EC 2.1.3.3) is a one-carbon-unit transferring enzyme that synthesizes citrulline using ornithine and carbamoylphosphate as substrates. It is involved in the metabolic transformation of arginine and proline, and it participates in the urea cycle in vertebrates and in the formation of putrescine in plants. Its enzymatic reaction is consistent with a ping-pong mechanism. OTC is expressed in a large variety of organisms from bacteria to mammals. Its gene can be regulated by glucocorticoids and other transcriptional factors such as C/EBP and HNF-4. The functional enzyme exists mostly as a trimer with an approximate molecular weight of 38 kDa. Inborn errors associated with a deficiency of OTC activity cause mainly urea cycle-related disorders, and lead to hyperammonemic states that may become lethal. In humans and experimental animals, OTC is localized in the mitochondrial matrix, mainly in the liver, but it is also in the intestinal epithelial cells. Some states of hepatotoxicity are associated with hepatocyte disruption and release of OTC into the bloodstream. However, recent evidence suggests that during active cell proliferation (e.g., during liver regeneration), OTC is also released from the hepatic tissue but without apparent damage. In this situation, extracellular and circulating hepatic OTC could be playing a different role, possibly functioning as a signaling molecule.

Mutant alleles associated with late-onset ornithine transcarbamylase deficiency in male patients have recurrently arisen and have been retained in some populations.

We performed haplotype analysis using nine single nucleotide polymorphisms in the ornithine transcarbamylase gene to explore the ancestral origins of three mutations associated with late-onset phenotype in male patients: p.R40H, p.R277W and p.Y55D. Overall, 8 haplotypes were defined among 14 families carrying p.R40H, 5 families carrying p.R277W and 2 families with p.Y55D mutations. Of nine Japanese families carrying p.R40H, eight exhibited haplotype (HT)1, whereas the other family harbored HT2. Among three Caucasian families, one Spanish and one Australian family bore HT3; one Austrian family had HT4. Two US patients harbored HT2 and HT4. Among families carrying p.R277W, HT5 was found in one Japanese, one Korean and one US family. Two other US families had HT2 and HT6. Two families carrying p.Y55D, both Japanese, shared HT1. These results indicate that the p.R40H mutation has arisen recurrently in all populations studied, although there is evidence for a founder effect in Japan, with most cases probably sharing a common origin, and to a lesser extent in subjects of European ancestry (HT3). It is evident that p.R277W mutation has recurred in discrete populations. The p.Y55D mutation appears to have arisen from a common ancestor, because this transversion (c.163T>G) occurs rarely.

Subunit architecture of multiprotein assemblies determined using restraints from gas-phase measurements.

Protein interaction networks are becoming an increasingly important area of research within structural genomics. Here we present an ion mobility-mass spectrometry approach capable of distinguishing the overall subunit architecture of protein complexes. The approach relies on the simultaneous measurement in the gas phase of the mass and size of intact assemblies and subcomplexes. These data are then used as restraints to generate topological models of protein complexes. To test and develop our method, we have chosen two well-characterized homo-dodecameric protein complexes: ornithine carbamoyl transferase and glutamine synthetase. By forming subcomplexes related to the comparative strength of the subunit interfaces, acquiring ion mobility data, and subsequent modeling, we show that these "building blocks" retain their native interactions and do not undergo major rearrangement in either solution or gas phases. We apply this approach to study two subcomplexes of the human eukaryotic initiation factor 3, for which there is no high-resolution structure.