Glyphosate-environmental variables interaction: How does it affect the parasite Chordodes nobilii?

The worldwide used herbicide Glyphosate can interact with environmental variables, but there is limited information on the influence of environmental stressors on its toxicity. Environmental changes could modify glyphosate effects on non-target organisms, including parasites such as gordiids. The freshwater microscopic larvae of the gordiid Chordodes nobilii are sensitive to several pollutants and environmental variables, but their combined effect has not been evaluated yet. The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of temperature, pH and exposure time on the toxicity of Glyphosate to C. nobilii larvae. A protocol was followed to evaluate the infectivity of larvae treated with factorial combinations of concentration (0 and 0.067 mg/L), exposure time (24 and 48 h), temperature (18, 23 and 28 °C), and pH (7, 8 and 9). The reference values were 23 °C, pH 8 and 48 h. The interaction effect on the infectivity of gordiid larvae was assessed post-exposure using Aedes aegyptii larvae as host. Results were evaluated using GLMM, which does not require data transformation. The modeling results revealed three highly significant triple interactions. Glyphosate toxicity varied depending on the combination of variables, with a decrease being observed after 24 h-exposure at pH 7 and 23 °C. Glyphosate and 28 °C combination led to slightly reduced infectivity compared to temperature alone. This study is the first to report the combined effects of glyphosate, temperature, pH and time on a freshwater animal. It demonstrates that a specific combination of factors determines the effect of glyphosate on a non-target organism. The potential use of C. nobilli as a bioindicator is discussed. In the context of global warming and considering that the behavioral manipulation of terrestrial hosts by gordiids can shape community structure and the energy flow through food webs, our results raise concerns about possible negative effects of climate change on host-parasite dynamics.

Variation and trade-offs in life history traits of the protist parasite Monocystis perplexa (Apicomplexa) in its earthworm host Amynthas agrestis.

The life history of a parasite describes its partitioning of assimilated resources into growth, reproduction, and transmission effort, and its precise timing of developmental events. The life cycle, in contrast, charts the sequence of morphological stages from feeding to the transmission forms. Phenotypic plasticity in life history traits can reveal how parasites confront variable environments within hosts. Within the protist phylum Apicomplexa major clades include the malaria parasites, coccidians, and most diverse, the gregarines (with likely millions of species). Studies on life history variation of gregarines are rare. Therefore, life history traits were examined for the gregarine Monocystis perplexa in its host, the invasive earthworm Amynthas agrestis at three sites in northern Vermont, United States of America. An important value of this system is the short life-span of the hosts, with only seven months from hatching to mass mortality; we were thus able to examine life history variation during the entire life cycle of both host and parasite. Earthworms were collected (N = 968 over 33 sample periods during one host season), then parasites of all life stages were counted, and sexual and transmission stages measured, for each earthworm. All traits varied substantially among individual earthworm hosts and across the sites. Across sites, timing of first appearance of infected earthworms, date when transmission stage (oocysts packed within gametocysts) appeared, date when number of both feeding (trophic) cells and gametocysts were at maximum, and date when 100% of earthworms were infected differed from 2-8 weeks, surprising variation for a short season available for parasite development. The maximal size of mating cells varied among hosts and across sites and this is reflected in the number of oocysts produced by the gametocyst. A negative trade-off was observed for the number of oocysts and their size. Several patterns were striking: (1) Prevalence reached 100% at all sites by mid season, only one to three weeks after parasites first appeared in the earthworms. (2) The number of parasites per host was large, reaching 300 × 103 cells in some hosts, and such high numbers were present even when parasites first appeared in the host. (3) At one site, few infected earthworms produced any oocysts. (4) The transmission rate to reach such high density of parasites in hosts needed to be very high for a microbe, from >0.33% to >34.3% across the three sites. Monocystis was one of the first protist parasites to have its life cycle described (early 19th century), but these results suggest the long-accepted life cycle of Monocystis could be incomplete, such that the parasites may be transmitted vertically (within the earthworm's eggs) as well as horizontally (leading to 100% prevalence) and merogony (asexual replication) could be present, not recognized for Monocystis, leading to high parasitemia even very early in the host's season.

Higher body condition with infection by Haemoproteus parasites in Bananaquits (Coereba flaveola).

Parasite transmission is a heterogenous process in host-parasite interactions. This heterogeneity is particularly apparent in vector-borne parasite transmission where the vector adds an additional level of complexity. Haemosporidian parasites, a widespread protist, cause a malaria-like disease in birds globally, but we still have much to learn about the consequences of infection to hosts' health. In the Caribbean, where malarial parasites are endemic, studying host-parasites interactions may give us important insights about energetic trade-offs involved in malarial parasites infections in birds. In this study, we tested the consequences of Haemoproteus infection on the Bananaquit, a resident species of Puerto Rico. We also tested for potential sources of individual heterogeneity in the consequences of infection such as host age and sex. To quantify the consequences of infection to hosts' health we compared three complementary body condition indices between infected and uninfected individuals. Our results showed that Bananaquits infected by Haemoproteus had higher body condition than uninfected individuals. This result was consistent among the three body condition indices. Still, we found no clear evidence that this effect was mediated by host age or sex. We discuss a set of non-mutually exclusive hypotheses that may explain this pattern including metabolic syndrome, immunological responses leading to host tolerance or resistance to infection, and potential changes in consumption rates. Overall, our results suggest that other mechanisms, may drive the consequences of avian malarial infection.

Who was the first to visualize the malaria parasite?

Human malaria, an ancient tropical disease, is caused by infection with protozoan parasites belonging to the genus Plasmodium and is transmitted by female mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles. Our understanding of human malaria parasites began officially in 1880 with their discovery in the blood of malaria patients by Charles Louis Alphonse Lavéran (1845-1922), a French army officer working in Algeria. A claim for priority was made by Philipp Friedrich Hermann Klencke (1813-1881) in 1843, who wrote a chapter entitled: "Marvellous parallelism between the manifestations of vertigo and the presence of animalcule vacuoles in living blood." We should not lose sight of this old controversy, which is rarely mentioned in historical reviews on malaria.

Convergence between helminths and breast cancer: intratumoral injection of the excretory/secretory antigens of the human parasite Toxocara canis (EST) increase lung macro and micro metastasis.

Introduction: Worldwide, breast cancer is the most important cancer in incidence and prevalence in women. Different risk factors interact to increase the probability of developing it. Biological agents such as helminth parasites, particularly their excretory/secretory antigens, may play a significant role in tumor development. Helminths and their antigens have been recognized as inducers or promoters of cancer due to their ability to regulate the host's immune response. Previously in our laboratory, we demonstrated that chronic infection by Toxocara canis increases the size of mammary tumors, affecting the systemic response to the parasite. However, the parasite does not invade the tumor, and we decided to study if the excretion/secretion of antigens from Toxocara canis (EST) can affect the progression of mammary tumors or the pathophysiology of cancer which is metastasis. Thus, this study aimed to determine whether excretion/secretion T. canis antigens, injected directly into the tumor, affect tumor growth and metastasis. Methods: We evaluated these parameters through the monitoring of the intra-tumoral immune response. Results: Mice injected intratumorally with EST did not show changes in the size and weight of the tumors; although the tumors showed an increased microvasculature, they did develop increased micro and macro-metastasis in the lung. The analysis of the immune tumor microenvironment revealed that EST antigens did not modulate the proportion of immune cells in the tumor, spleen, or peripheral lymph nodes. Macroscopic and microscopic analyses of the lungs showed increased metastasis in the EST-treated animals compared to controls, accompanied by an increase in VEGF systemic levels. Discussion: Thus, these findings showed that intra-tumoral injection of T. canis EST antigens promote lung metastasis through modulation of the tumor immune microenvironment.

Comparative secretome analysis of Striga and Cuscuta species identifies candidate virulence factors for two evolutionarily independent parasitic plant lineages.

BACKGROUND: Many parasitic plants of the genera Striga and Cuscuta inflict huge agricultural damage worldwide. To form and maintain a connection with a host plant, parasitic plants deploy virulence factors (VFs) that interact with host biology. They possess a secretome that represents the complement of proteins secreted from cells and like other plant parasites such as fungi, bacteria or nematodes, some secreted proteins represent VFs crucial to successful host colonisation. Understanding the genome-wide complement of putative secreted proteins from parasitic plants, and their expression during host invasion, will advance understanding of virulence mechanisms used by parasitic plants to suppress/evade host immune responses and to establish and maintain a parasite-host interaction. RESULTS: We conducted a comparative analysis of the secretomes of root (Striga spp.) and shoot (Cuscuta spp.) parasitic plants, to enable prediction of candidate VFs. Using orthogroup clustering and protein domain analyses we identified gene families/functional annotations common to both Striga and Cuscuta species that were not present in their closest non-parasitic relatives (e.g. strictosidine synthase like enzymes), or specific to either the Striga or Cuscuta secretomes. For example, Striga secretomes were strongly associated with 'PAR1' protein domains. These were rare in the Cuscuta secretomes but an abundance of 'GMC oxidoreductase' domains were found, that were not present in the Striga secretomes. We then conducted transcriptional profiling of genes encoding putatively secreted proteins for the most agriculturally damaging root parasitic weed of cereals, S. hermonthica. A significant portion of the Striga-specific secretome set was differentially expressed during parasitism, which we probed further to identify genes following a 'wave-like' expression pattern peaking in the early penetration stage of infection. We identified 39 genes encoding putative VFs with functions such as cell wall modification, immune suppression, protease, kinase, or peroxidase activities, that are excellent candidates for future functional studies. CONCLUSIONS: Our study represents a comprehensive secretome analysis among parasitic plants and revealed both similarities and differences in candidate VFs between Striga and Cuscuta species. This knowledge is crucial for the development of new management strategies and delaying the evolution of virulence in parasitic weeds.

Closing the knowledge gap: Helminth parasites of freshwater turtles from the Chaco-Pampa Plain, Southern South America.

Six species of freshwater turtles dominate the Chaco-Pampa Plain in southern South America and their parasites have been relatively understudied, with most records concentrated in Brazil. Particularly in Argentina, there are only scattered records of parasites for most of the turtles that inhabit the region, leaving a large knowledge gap. The purpose of the present contribution is to increase the knowledge of the internal parasites of six species of freshwater turtles from Argentina, after 15 years of fieldwork, by providing new hosts and additional geographic records for many host-parasite relationships. Some molecular sequences of the studied parasites were provided as a tool for better species identification. We processed 433 stomach and fecal samples from live individuals and visceral and soft tissue samples from 54 dissected turtles collected from a wide range and different ecoregions. We found 6230 helminths belonging to 18 taxa (one cestode, 11 digeneans and six nematodes). Fourteen new parasite-host associations are reported here, and for the first time parasites are recorded for Phrynops williamsi. This work contributes significantly to the knowledge of the parasitofauna in freshwater turtles in Argentina, providing a detailed list of parasites present in each turtle species and reporting molecular characters for future studies.

Metabolism and physiology of pathogenic bacterial obligate intracellular parasites.

Bacterial obligate intracellular parasites (BOIPs) represent an exclusive group of bacterial pathogens that all depend on invasion of a eukaryotic host cell to reproduce. BOIPs are characterized by extensive adaptation to their respective replication niches, regardless of whether they replicate within the host cell cytoplasm or within specialized replication vacuoles. Genome reduction is also a hallmark of BOIPs that likely reflects streamlining of metabolic processes to reduce the need for de novo biosynthesis of energetically costly metabolic intermediates. Despite shared characteristics in lifestyle, BOIPs show considerable diversity in nutrient requirements, metabolic capabilities, and general physiology. In this review, we compare metabolic and physiological processes of prominent pathogenic BOIPs with special emphasis on carbon, energy, and amino acid metabolism. Recent advances are discussed in the context of historical views and opportunities for discovery.

The impact of within-host coinfection interactions on between-host parasite transmission dynamics varies with spatial scale.

Within-host interactions among coinfecting parasites can have major consequences for individual infection risk and disease severity. However, the impact of these within-host interactions on between-host parasite transmission, and the spatial scales over which they occur, remain unknown. We developed and apply a novel spatially explicit analysis to parasite infection data from a wild wood mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus) population. We previously demonstrated a strong within-host negative interaction between two wood mouse gastrointestinal parasites, the nematode Heligmosomoides polygyrus and the coccidian Eimeria hungaryensis, using drug-treatment experiments. Here, we show this negative within-host interaction can significantly alter the between-host transmission dynamics of E. hungaryensis, but only within spatially restricted neighbourhoods around each host. However, for the closely related species E. apionodes, which experiments show does not interact strongly with H. polygyrus, we did not find any effect on transmission over any spatial scale. Our results demonstrate that the effects of within-host coinfection interactions can ripple out beyond each host to alter the transmission dynamics of the parasites, but only over local scales that likely reflect the spatial dimension of transmission. Hence there may be knock-on consequences of drug treatments impacting the transmission of non-target parasites, altering infection risks even for non-treated individuals in the wider neighbourhood.

Parasites (Monogenea) of tilapias Oreochromis niloticus and Coptodon rendalli (Cichlidae) in a river spring in Brazil.

In the present study, we examined 30 individuals of introduced African cichlids, Oreochromis niloticus and Coptodon rendalli, collected in a river spring of the Pardo River, Paranapanema River basin, southeastern Brazil. Based on morphological and molecular analyses of the partial LSU rDNA gene, we identified four species of monogeneans, Cichlidogyrus tilapiae, C. thurstonae, C. mbirizei, and Scutogyrus longicornis on the gills of O. niloticus, whereas individuals of C. rendalli were infested only with C. papernastrema. This is the first record of C. mbirizei and C. papernastrema in tilapias from Brazil. The ecological consequences of the introduction of exotic species of tilapia such as O. niloticus and C. rendalli along with their monogenean parasites in a wild environment represented by a river spring are discussed. Our new molecular data on Cichlidogyrus and Scutogyrus contribute to the investigation of the phylogenetic interrelationships of these widely distributed genera of monogeneans since their species composition is still unsettled.

Title: Parasites (Monogenea) des tilapias Oreochromis niloticus et Coptodon rendalli (Cichlidae) dans une source au Brésil. Abstract: Dans la présente étude, nous avons examiné 30 individus de cichlidés africains introduits, Oreochromis niloticus et Coptodon rendalli, collectés dans une source fluviale du fleuve Pardo, bassin du fleuve Paranapanema, dans le sud-est du Brésil. Sur la base d'analyses morphologiques et moléculaires du gène partiel de l'ADNr LSU, nous avons identifié quatre espèces de monogènes, Cichlidogyrus tilapiae, C. thurstonae, C. mbirizei et Scutogyrus longicornis sur les branchies d'O. niloticus, alors que les individus de C. rendalli étaient infestés uniquement par C. papernastrema. Il s'agit du premier signalement de C. mbirizei et C. papernastrema chez des tilapias du Brésil. Les conséquences écologiques de l'introduction d'espèces exotiques de tilapia telles que O. niloticus et C. rendalli ainsi que leurs monogènes parasites dans un environnement sauvage représenté par une source fluviale sont discutées. Nos nouvelles données moléculaires sur Cichlidogyrus et Scutogyrus contribuent à l'étude des interrelations phylogénétiques de ces genres de monogènes largement distribués puisque leur composition spécifique est encore incertaine.

Ontological representation, modeling, and analysis of parasite vaccines.

BACKGROUND: Pathogenic parasites are responsible for multiple diseases, such as malaria and Chagas disease, in humans and livestock. Traditionally, pathogenic parasites have been largely an evasive topic for vaccine design, with most successful vaccines only emerging recently. To aid vaccine design, the VIOLIN vaccine knowledgebase has collected vaccines from all sources to serve as a comprehensive vaccine knowledgebase. VIOLIN utilizes the Vaccine Ontology (VO) to standardize the modeling of vaccine data. VO did not model complex life cycles as seen in parasites. With the inclusion of successful parasite vaccines, an update in parasite vaccine modeling was needed. RESULTS: VIOLIN was expanded to include 258 parasite vaccines against 23 protozoan species, and 607 new parasite vaccine-related terms were added to VO since 2022. The updated VO design for parasite vaccines accounts for parasite life stages and for transmission-blocking vaccines. A total of 356 terms from the Ontology of Parasite Lifecycle (OPL) were imported to VO to help represent the effect of different parasite life stages. A new VO class term, 'transmission-blocking vaccine,' was added to represent vaccines able to block infectious transmission, and one new VO object property, 'blocks transmission of pathogen via vaccine,' was added to link vaccine and pathogen in which the vaccine blocks the transmission of the pathogen. Additionally, our Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) of 140 parasite antigens used in the parasitic vaccines identified enriched features. For example, significant patterns, such as signal, plasma membrane, and entry into host, were found in the antigens of the vaccines against two parasite species: Plasmodium falciparum and Toxoplasma gondii. The analysis found 18 out of the 140 parasite antigens involved with the malaria disease process. Moreover, a majority (15 out of 54) of P. falciparum parasite antigens are localized in the cell membrane. T. gondii antigens, in contrast, have a majority (19/24) of their proteins related to signaling pathways. The antigen-enriched patterns align with the life cycle stage patterns identified in our ontological parasite vaccine modeling. CONCLUSIONS: The updated VO modeling and GSEA analysis capture the influence of the complex parasite life cycles and their associated antigens on vaccine development.

A Theileria annulata parasite with a single mutation, methionine 128 to isoleucine (M128I), in cytochrome B is resistant to buparvaquone.

Tropical theileriosis is a fatal leukemic-like disease of cattle caused by the tick-transmitted protozoan parasite Theileria annulata. The economics of cattle meat and milk production is severely affected by theileriosis in endemic areas. The hydroxynaphtoquinone buparvaquone (BPQ) is the only available drug currently used to treat clinical theileriosis, whilst BPQ resistance is emerging and spreading in endemic areas. Here, we chronically exposed T. annulata-transformed macrophages in vitro to BPQ and monitored the emergence of drug-resistant parasites. Surviving parasites revealed a significant increase in BPQ IC50 compared to the wild type parasites. Drug resistant parasites from two independent cloned lines had an identical single mutation, M128I, in the gene coding for T. annulata cytochrome B (Tacytb). This in vitro generated mutation has not been reported in resistant field isolates previously, but is reminiscent of the methionine to isoleucine mutation in atovaquone-resistant Plasmodium and Babesia. The M128I mutation did not appear to exert any deleterious effect on parasite fitness (proliferation and differentiation to merozoites). To gain insight into whether drug-resistance could have resulted from altered drug binding to TaCytB we generated in silico a 3D-model of wild type TaCytB and docked BPQ to the predicted 3D-structure. Potential binding sites cluster in four areas of the protein structure including the Q01 site. The bound drug in the Q01 site is expected to pack against an alpha helix, which included M128, suggesting that the change in amino acid in this position may alter drug-binding. The in vitro generated BPQ resistant T. annulata is a useful tool to determine the contribution of the various predicted docking sites to BPQ resistance and will also allow testing novel drugs against theileriosis for their potential to overcome BPQ resistance.

Exploring the preservation of a parasitic trace in decapod crustaceans using finite elements analysis.

The fossil record of parasitism is poorly understood, due largely to the scarcity of strong fossil evidence of parasites. Understanding the preservation potential for fossil parasitic evidence is critical to contextualizing the fossil record of parasitism. Here, we present the first use of X-ray computed tomography (CT) scanning and finite elements analysis (FEA) to analyze the impact of a parasite-induced fossil trace on host preservation. Four fossil and three modern decapod crustacean specimens with branchial swellings attributed to an epicaridean isopod parasite were CT scanned and examined with FEA to assess differences in the magnitude and distribution of stress between normal and swollen branchial chambers. The results of the FEA show highly localized stress peaks in reaction to point forces, with higher peak stress on the swollen branchial chamber for nearly all specimens and different forces applied, suggesting a possible shape-related decrease in the preservation potential of these parasitic swellings. Broader application of these methods as well as advances in the application of 3D data analysis in paleontology are critical to understanding the fossil record of parasitism and other poorly represented fossil groups.

A RANGE-WIDE ECTOPARASITE SURVEY FOR ALLEGHENY WOODRATS (NEOTOMA MAGISTER).

Allegheny woodrats (Neotoma magister) are karst-specializing rodents that are rare or in conservation need in many states within their current range. Parasitism and habitat fragmentation have been suggested as primary reasons for declining populations. The presence, prevalence, and impact of ectoparasites, including fleas, ticks, and bots, is not fully understood rangewide. We collected Allegheny woodrat ectoparasites across 8 states in their range, identifying parasites via morphological and genetic means. Across contributions from 8 states, we discovered 2 woodrat-specific fleas parasitizing Allegheny woodrats: Orchopeas pennsylvanicus (all contributing states, n = 228) and Epitedia cavernicola (Indiana only, n = 9). The former was a new state record in New Jersey and Ohio. Woodrat specialists Ixodes woodi were morphologically identified as the dominant tick species (n = 38), and our contributions to genetic databases may ease confusion in future efforts. Three generalist species of ticks representing 8 individuals were identified as Dermacentor variabilis, Amblyomma americanum, and Ixodes scapularis. Only 2 bot fly species were recognized in Allegheny woodrats: 1 squirrel bot (Cuterebra emasculator) and 10 individuals of Cuterebra sp. not genetically conspecific to any known eastern U.S. rodent bot. The host specificity for fleas is not surprising, given that previous small-scale surveys and ticks primarily appear to be a mix of genus-specific (Ixodes woodi) and generalist species. There remains uncertainty with bots via morphological and genetic analyses. Our survey presents a wide-ranging baseline survey for Allegheny woodrats across their range, emphasizing the diversity (or specificity) of parasite groups for this species. An understanding of Allegheny woodrats and the health impact of ectoparasites is imperative because they face myriad challenges rangewide, especially considering the bot-driven demise of 1 woodrat in our study. Ectoparasites can have a marked impact on already-declining woodrat populations across their range and should not be overlooked in future surveys.

HOST SWITCHING IN DICYEMIDS (PHYLUM DICYEMIDA).

Dicyemids (phylum Dicyemida) are the most common and most characteristic endosymbionts in the renal sacs of benthic cephalopod molluscs: octopuses and cuttlefishes. Typically, 2 or 3 dicyemid species are found in a single specimen of the host, and most dicyemids have high host specificity. Host-specific parasites are restricted to a limited range of host species by ecological barriers that impede dispersal and successful establishment; therefore, phylogenies of interacting groups are often congruent due to repeated co-speciation. Most frequently, however, host and parasite phylogenies are not congruent, which can be explained by processes such as host switching and other macro-evolutionary events. Here, the history of dicyemids and their host cephalopod associations were studied by comparing their phylogenies. Dicyemid species were collected from 8 decapodiform species and 12 octopodiform species in Japanese waters. Using whole mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (COI) sequences, a phylogeny of 37 dicyemid species, including 4 genera representing the family Dicyemidae, was reconstructed. Phylogenetic trees derived from analyses of COI genes consistently suggested that dicyemid species should be separated into 3 major clades and that the most common genera, Dicyema and Dicyemennea, are not monophyletic. Thus, morphological classification does not reflect the phylogenetic relationships of these 2 genera. Divergence (speciation) of dicyemid species seems to have occurred within a single host species. Possible host-switching events may have occurred between the Octopodiformes and Decapodiformes or within the Octopodiformes or the Decapodiformes. Therefore, the mechanism of dicyemid speciation may be a mixture of host switching and intra-host speciation. This is the first study in which the process of dicyemid diversification involving cephalopod hosts has been evaluated with a large number of dicyemid species and genera.

Extracellular Vesicles: Translational Agenda Questions for Three Protozoan Parasites.

The protozoan parasites Plasmodium falciparum, Leishmania spp. and Trypanosoma cruzi continue to exert a significant toll on the disease landscape of the human population in sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America. Control measures have helped reduce the burden of their respective diseases-malaria, leishmaniasis and Chagas disease-in endemic regions. However, the need for new drugs, innovative vaccination strategies and molecular markers of disease severity and outcomes has emerged because of developing antimicrobial drug resistance, comparatively inadequate or absent vaccines, and a lack of trustworthy markers of morbid outcomes. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been widely reported to play a role in the biology and pathogenicity of P. falciparum, Leishmania spp. and T. cruzi ever since they were discovered. EVs are secreted by a yet to be fully understood mechanism in protozoans into the extracellular milieu and carry a cargo of diverse molecules that reflect the originator cell's metabolic state. Although our understanding of the biogenesis and function of EVs continues to deepen, the question of how EVs in P. falciparum, Leishmania spp. and T. cruzi can serve as targets for a translational agenda into clinical and public health interventions is yet to be fully explored. Here, as a consortium of protozoan researchers, we outline a plan for future researchers and pose three questions to direct an EV's translational agenda in P. falciparum, Leishmania spp. and T. cruzi. We opine that in the long term, executing this blueprint will help bridge the current unmet needs of these medically important protozoan diseases in sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America.

Molecular tools are crucial for malaria elimination.

The eradication of Plasmodium parasites, responsible for malaria, is a daunting global public health task. It requires a comprehensive approach that addresses symptomatic, asymptomatic, and submicroscopic cases. Overcoming this challenge relies on harnessing the power of molecular diagnostic tools, as traditional methods like microscopy and rapid diagnostic tests fall short in detecting low parasitaemia, contributing to the persistence of malaria transmission. By precisely identifying patients of all types and effectively characterizing malaria parasites, molecular tools may emerge as indispensable allies in the pursuit of malaria elimination. Furthermore, molecular tools can also provide valuable insights into parasite diversity, drug resistance patterns, and transmission dynamics, aiding in the implementation of targeted interventions and surveillance strategies. In this review, we explore the significance of molecular tools in the pursuit of malaria elimination, shedding light on their key contributions and potential impact on public health.

Inhibition of malaria and babesiosis parasites by putative red blood cell targeting small molecules.

Background: Chemotherapies for malaria and babesiosis frequently succumb to the emergence of pathogen-related drug-resistance. Host-targeted therapies are thought to be less susceptible to resistance but are seldom considered for treatment of these diseases. Methods: Our overall objective was to systematically assess small molecules for host cell-targeting activity to restrict proliferation of intracellular parasites. We carried out a literature survey to identify small molecules annotated for host factors implicated in Plasmodium falciparum infection. Alongside P. falciparum, we implemented in vitro parasite susceptibility assays also in the zoonotic parasite Plasmodium knowlesi and the veterinary parasite Babesia divergens. We additionally carried out assays to test directly for action on RBCs apart from the parasites. To distinguish specific host-targeting antiparasitic activity from erythrotoxicity, we measured phosphatidylserine exposure and hemolysis stimulated by small molecules in uninfected RBCs. Results: We identified diverse RBC target-annotated inhibitors with Plasmodium-specific, Babesia-specific, and broad-spectrum antiparasitic activity. The anticancer MEK-targeting drug trametinib is shown here to act with submicromolar activity to block proliferation of Plasmodium spp. in RBCs. Some inhibitors exhibit antimalarial activity with transient exposure to RBCs prior to infection with parasites, providing evidence for host-targeting activity distinct from direct inhibition of the parasite. Conclusions: We report here characterization of small molecules for antiproliferative and host cell-targeting activity for malaria and babesiosis parasites. This resource is relevant for assessment of physiological RBC-parasite interactions and may inform drug development and repurposing efforts.

In vivo assessment of the antiparasitic effects of Allium sativum L. and Artemisia absinthium L. against gastrointestinal parasites in swine from low-input farms.

BACKGROUND: Ethno-veterinary practices could be used as a sustainable developmental tool by integrating traditional phytotherapy and husbandry. Phytotherapeutics are available and used worldwide. However, evidence of their antiparasitic efficacy is currently very limited. Parasitic diseases have a considerable effect on pig production, causing economic losses due to high morbidity and mortality. In this respect, especially smallholders and organic producers face severe challenges. Parasites, as disease causing agents, often outcompete other pathogens in such extensive production systems. A total of 720 faecal samples were collected in two farms from three age categories, i.e. weaners, fatteners, and sows. Flotation (Willis and McMaster method), modified Ziehl-Neelsen stained faecal smear, centrifugal sedimentation, modified Blagg technique, and faecal cultures were used to identify parasites and quantify the parasitic load. RESULTS: The examination confirmed the presence of infections with Eimeria spp., Cryptosporidium spp., Balantioides coli (syn. Balantidium coli), Ascaris suum, Oesophagostomum spp., Strongyloides ransomi, and Trichuris suis, distributed based on age category. A dose of 180 mg/kg bw/day of Allium sativum L. and 90 mg/kg bw/day of Artemisia absinthium L. powders, administered for 10 consecutive days, revealed a strong, taxonomy-based antiprotozoal and anthelmintic activity. CONCLUSIONS: The results highlighted the therapeutic potential of both A. sativum and A. absinthium against gastrointestinal parasites in pigs. Their therapeutic effectiveness may be attributed to the content in polyphenols, tocopherols, flavonoids, sterols, sesquiterpene lactones, and sulfoxide. Further research is required to establish the minimal effective dose of both plants against digestive parasites in pigs.