Physico-chemical characterisation of irrigation basin waters and inventory study of their algal communities.

To cope with the water shortage in Sous Massa region of Morocco, agricultural producers in the region have resorted to different types of water supply basins, known as "irrigation basins" but the phenomenon of eutrophication has hindered the continuity of agricultural productivity by altering the quality of the water used for irrigation on the one hand, and causing economic damage to agricultural producers due to the clogging of the water pumping network on the other. We began by characterising the physico-chemical quality of the water to determine the causes of its high nutrient content, then we determined the taxonomy of the algal species in the irrigation basins to which we had access. A qualitative study of the water in the irrigation basins in order to better explain the inventory obtained from the taxonomic identification of the algal biomass collected, which proved the existence of new species, not previously identified, characterising the freshwaters of the Moroccan region, is under the scope of this work. The species studied belong mainly to the following groups: green algae (11 genera of Chlorophyta and 7 genera of Charophyta), blue algae (7 genera of Cyanobacteria), brown algae (7 genera of Diatoms), and one genus of Euglenophyta.

Green (Ulva fenestrata) and Brown (Saccharina latissima) Macroalgae Similarly Modulate Inflammatory Signaling by Activating NF-κB and Dampening IRF in Human Macrophage-Like Cells.

Macroalgae are considered healthy food ingredients due to their content in numerous bioactive compounds, and the traditional use of whole macroalgae in Asian cuisine suggests a contribution to longevity. Although much information is available about the bioactivity of pure algal compounds, such as different polyphenols and polysaccharides, documentation of potential effects of whole macroalgae as part of Western diets is limited. Lifestyle- and age-related diseases, which have a high impact on population health, are closely connected to underlying chronic inflammation. Therefore, we have studied crude extracts of green (Ulva fenestrata) and brown (Saccharina latissima) macroalgae, as two of the most promising food macroalgae in the Nordic countries for their effect on inflammation in vitro. Human macrophage-like reporter THP-1 cells were treated with macroalgae extracts and stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to induce inflammatory signalling. Effects of the macroalgae extracts were assessed on transcription factor activity of NF-κB and IRF as well as secretion and/or expression of the cytokines TNF-α and IFN-ß and chemokines IL-8 and CXCL10. The crude macroalgae extracts were further separated into polyphenol-enriched and polysaccharide-enriched fractions, which were also tested for their effect on transcription factor activity. Interestingly, we observed a selective activation of NF-κB, when cells were treated with macroalgae extracts. On the other hand, pretreatment with macroalgae extracts selectively repressed IRF activation when inflammatory signaling was subsequently induced by LPS. This effect was consistent for both tested species as well as for polyphenol- and polysaccharide-enriched fractions, of which the latter had more pronounced effects. Overall, this is the first indication of how macroalgae could modulate inflammatory signaling by selective activation and subsequent repression of different pathways. Further in vitro and in vivo studies of this mechanism would be needed to understand how macroalgae consumption could influence the prevention of noncommunicable, lifestyle- and age-related diseases that are highly related to unbalanced inflammatory processes.

Direct Degradation of Fresh and Dried Macroalgae by Agarivorans albus B2Z047.

Marine macroalgae are increasingly recognized for their significant biological and economic potential. The key to unlocking this potential lies in the efficient degradation of all carbohydrates from the macroalgae biomass. However, a variety of polysaccharides (alginate, cellulose, fucoidan, and laminarin), are difficult to degrade simultaneously in a short time. In this study, the brown alga Saccharina japonica was found to be rapidly and thoroughly degraded by the marine bacterium Agarivorans albus B2Z047. This strain harbors a broad spectrum of carbohydrate-active enzymes capable of degrading various polysaccharides, making it uniquely equipped to efficiently break down both fresh and dried kelp, achieving a hydrolysis rate of up to 52%. A transcriptomic analysis elucidated the presence of pivotal enzyme genes implicated in the degradation pathways of alginate, cellulose, fucoidan, and laminarin. This discovery highlights the bacterium's capability for the efficient and comprehensive conversion of kelp biomass, indicating its significant potential in biotechnological applications for macroalgae resource utilization.

Extracellular Vesicles from Ecklonia cava and Phlorotannin Promote Rejuvenation in Aged Skin.

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) elicit diverse biological effects, including promoting skin health. EVs isolated from Ecklonia cava (EV-EC) carry heat shock protein 70 (HSP70), which inhibits key regulators such as TNF-α, MAPKs, and NF-κB, consequently downregulating matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). Aging exacerbates oxidative stress, upregulating MAPK and NF-κB signaling and worsening extracellular matrix degradation in the skin. E. cava-derived phlorotannin (PT) mitigates MAPK and NF-κB signaling. We evaluated the impact of EV-EC and PT on skin rejuvenation using an in vitro keratinocyte senescence model and an in vivo aged-mouse model. Western blotting confirmed the presence of HSP70 in EV-EC. Treatment with EV-EC and PT in senescent keratinocytes increased HSP70 expression and decreased the expression of TNF-α, MAPK, NF-κB, activator protein-1 (AP-1), and MMPs. Oxidative stress was also reduced. Sequential treatment with PT and EV-EC (PT/EV-EC) yielded more significant results compared to individual treatments. The administration of PT/EV-EC to the back skin of aged mice mirrored the in vitro findings, resulting in increased collagen fiber accumulation and improved elasticity in the aged skin. Therefore, PT/EV-EC holds promise in promoting skin rejuvenation by increasing HSP70 expression, decreasing the expression of MMPs, and reducing oxidative stress in aged skin.

Shewanella phaeophyticola sp. nov. and Vibrio algarum sp. nov., isolated from marine brown algae.

Two Gram-stain-negative, rod-shaped bacteria, designated as strains KJ10-1T and KJ40-1T, were isolated from marine brown algae. Both strains were catalase-positive, oxidase-positive, and facultative aerobic. Strain KJ10-1T exhibited optimal growth at 25 °C, pH 7.0, and 3 % NaCl, whereas strain KJ40-1T showed optimal growth at 25 °C, pH 7.0, and 2 % NaCl. The respiratory quinones of strain KJ10-1T were ubiquinone-8, ubiquinone-7, menaquinone-7, and methylated menaquinone-7, while the respiratory quinone of strain KJ40-1T was only ubiquinone-8. As major fatty acids, strain KJ10-1T contained C16 : 0, C17 : 1 ω8c, iso-C15 : 0, and summed feature 3 (C16 : 1 ω7c and/or C16 : 1 ω6c) and strain KJ40-1T contained C16 : 0 and summed features 3 and 8 (C18 : 1 ω7c and/or C18 : 1 ω6c). The major polar lipids in strain KJ10-1T were phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylglycerol, and an unidentified aminolipid, whereas those in strain KJ40-1T were phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylglycerol, and diphosphatidylglycerol. The DNA G+C contents of strains KJ10-1T and KJ40-1T were 42.1 and 40.8 mol%, respectively. Based on 16S rRNA gene sequences, strains KJ10-1T and KJ40-1T exhibited the closest relatedness to Shewanella saliphila MMS16-UL250T (98.6 %) and Vibrio rumoiensis S-1T (95.4 %), respectively. Phylogenetic analyses, based on both 16S rRNA and 92 housekeeping genes, showed that the strains formed distinct phylogenic lineages within the genera Shewanella and Vibrio. Digital DNA-DNA hybridization and orthologous average nucleotide identity values between strain KJ10-1T and other Shewanella species, as well as between strain KJ40-1T and other Vibrio species, were below the thresholds commonly accepted for prokaryotic species delineation. Based on the phenotypic, chemotaxonomic, and phylogenetic data, strains KJ10-1T and KJ40-1T represent novel species of the genera Shewanella and Vibrio, respectively, for which the names Shewanella phaeophyticola sp. nov. and Vibrio algarum sp. nov. are proposed, respectively. The type strains of S. phaeophyticola and V. algarum are KJ10-1T (=KACC 22589T=JCM 35409T) and KJ40-1T (=KACC 22588T=JCM 35410T), respectively.

The stunting effect of an oxylipins-containing macroalgae extract on sea urchin reproduction and neuroblastoma cells viability.

Different bioactive molecules extracted from macroalgae, including oxylipins, showed interesting potentials in different applications, from healthcare to biomaterial manufacturing and environmental remediation. Thus far, no studies reported the effects of oxylipins-containing macroalgae extracts on embryo development of marine invertebrates and on neuroblastoma cancer cells. Here, the effects of an oxylipins-containing extract from Ericaria brachycarpa, a canopy-forming brown algae, were investigated on the development of Arbacia lixula sea urchin embryos and on SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells viability. Embryos and cells were exposed to concentrations covering a full 0-100% dose-response curve, with doses ranging from 0 to 40 µg mL-1 for embryos and from 0 to 200 µg mL-1 for cells. These natural marine toxins caused a dose-dependent decrease of normal embryos development and of neuroblastoma cells viability. Toxicity was higher for exposures starting from the gastrula embryonal stage if compared to the zygote and pluteus stages, with an EC50 significantly lower by 33 and 68%, respectively. Embryos exposed to low doses showed a general delay in development with a decrease in the ability to calcify, while higher doses caused 100% block of embryo growth. Exposure of SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells to 40 µg mL-1 for 72 h caused 78% mortality, while no effect was observed on their neuronal-like cells derivatives, suggesting a selective targeting of proliferating cells. Western Blot experiments on both model systems displayed the modulation of different molecular markers (HSP60, HSP90, LC3, p62, CHOP and cleaved caspase-7), showing altered stress response and enhanced autophagy and apoptosis, confirmed by increased fragmented DNA in apoptotic nuclei. Our study gives new insights into the molecular strategies that marine invertebrates use when responding to their environmental natural toxins and suggests the E. brachycarpa's extract as a potential source for the development of innovative, environmentally friendly products with larvicide and antineoplastic activity.

Wound healing potential of Cystoseira/mesenchymal stem cells in immunosuppressed rats supported by overwhelming immuno-inflammatory crosstalk.

Wound healing, one of the most intricate and dynamic processes of the body, maintains skin integrity following trauma. One of the main issues that still exists is impaired wound healing, particularly for immunosuppressed patients. Recently, natural products from marine environments have been employed in wound-repairing activities. This work investigates the mesenchymal stem cells in the combined capacity of the bone marrow (BMMSC) for wound healing and Cystoseira sp. Algae extract in immunosuppressed rats. High-resolution liquid chromatography / MS investigation of Cystoseira extract revealed the prevalence of fatty acids that have wound-soothing potential. From constructed PPI network for wound healing and further analysis through molecular docking and molecular dynamics (MD) simulation experiments suggested that cystalgerone metabolite may be responsible for the wound healing-promoting effect of Cystoseira extract. According to the CD marker characterization of the BMMSC, 98.21% of them expressed CD90, and 97.1% expressed CD105. Sixteen d after immunity suppression (by 40 mg/kg hydrocortisone daily), an incision was made in the dorsal skin of the rat. The treatments were applied for 16 d and samples were taken from the tested groups on the 8th, 14th, and 16th days. The BMMSCs / Cystoseira group showed significantly improved wound closure, thickness, density of new layers, and skin elasticity than the control group (p < 0.001). The BMMSCs / Cystoseira combination significantly reduced the oxidative indicators, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and immune markers, according to the RT-PCR gene expression study. In order to delve deeper into the complex interconnections among wound healing-related biological targets and pinpoint key factors in this complex process, we engaged in network pharmacology and computational research. Subsequently, we conducted a comprehensive computational analysis, including reverse docking, free energy (ΔG) computation, and molecular dynamics simulations, on the molecular structures of the annotated compounds. The purpose of this investigation was to identify potential new targets for these chemicals as well as any potential interactions they may have with different signaling pathways related to the wound healing process. Our research indicates that the primary compounds of Cystoseira holds potential wound healing therapeutic activity. Although more safety testing and clinical studies are required, the combination has great potential for regenerative medicine and could be a revolutionary advance in the healing of the wounds of immunosuppressed patients.

Alleviative effects of sulfated polysaccharide from Ishige Okamurae against DSS-induced ulcerative colitis via inhibiting inflammation and modulating gut microbiota.

A water-soluble polysaccharide from the brown alga Ishige Okamurae, designated IOP-0, was obtained by preparative anion-exchange and size-exclusion chromatography. Chemical and spectroscopic investigations revealed that IOP-0 was a sulfated fucoidan with a backbone primarily composed of 3-linked and 4-linked-L-fucose with sulfate groups at C-2/C-4 of the 3-linked-L-fucose. The protective effect of IOP-0 on ulcerative colitis was evaluated in this work. The results showed that IOP-0 could significantly alleviate the symptoms of ulcerative colitis by preventing weight loss, preserving the structure of intestinal tissues, and ameliorating the dysregulation of inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-10). Meanwhile, IOP-0 protected the colonic mucosal barrier by promoting the tight junction protein ZO-1 and occludin expression. In addition, IOP-0 was able to maintain intestinal homeostasis and improve intestinal function by regulating the gut microbiota and their metabolites, such as short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). These results suggest that IOP-0 might be a potential dietary supplement for the prevention and treatment of ulcerative colitis.

Investigation of Physical Characteristics and In Vitro Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Fucoidan from Padina arborescens: A Comprehensive Assessment against Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammation.

A biocompatible, heterogeneous, fucose-rich, sulfated polysaccharide (fucoidan) is biosynthesized in brown seaweed. In this study, fucoidan was isolated from Padina arborescens (PAC) using celluclast-assisted extraction, purified, and evaluated for its anti-inflammatory potential in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW 264.7 cells. Structural analyses were performed using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and scanning electron microscopy. Among the purified fucoidans, fucoidan fraction 5 (F5) exhibited strong inhibitory activity against LPS-induced nitric oxide (NO) production and pro-inflammatory cytokine generation through the regulation of iNOS/COX-2, MAPK, and NF-κB signaling in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cells. Determination of the structural characteristics indicated that purified F5 exhibited characteristics similar to those of commercial fucoidan. In addition, further analyses suggested that F5 inhibits LPS-induced toxicity, cell death, and NO generation in zebrafish models. Taken together, these findings imply that P. arborescens fucoidans have exceptional anti-inflammatory action, both in vitro and in vivo, and that they may have prospective uses in the functional food sector.

Survey of arsenic content in edible seaweeds and their health risk assessment.

Since humans are especially sensitive to arsenic exposure, predominantly through diet, a strict control of the most widely consumed seaweeds is mandatory. Total arsenic contents and arsenic species in twenty-five different seaweeds from five different origins were studied. Seaweeds selected, included Phaeophyta (brown seaweed), Chlorophyta (green seaweed) and Rhodophyta (red seaweed) genera. The highest arsenic content appears in the Phaeophyta seaweed in the range from 11 to 162 mg kg-1 dried weight. Arsenosugars were found to be the predominant species of arsenic in most seaweeds, being up to 99.7% of total arsenic in some samples. The arsenic dietary intakes for seaweeds studied were assessed and the Target Hazard Quotients (THQ) and the Target Cancer Risk (TCR) were calculated, taking into account inorganic arsenic contents (iAs). iAs species in seaweeds showed low risk of arsenic intake except for Hizikia fusiforme samples.

Simultaneous production of biofuel, and removal of heavy metals using marine alga Turbinaria turbinata as a feedstock in NEOM Region, Tabuk.

Depletion of fossil fuel and pollution by heavy metals are two major global issues. The cell wall of algae consists of polymers of polysaccharides such as cellulose, hemicellulose, alginate, starch, and many others that are readily hydrolyzed to monosaccharides and hence are amenable to fermentation into bioethanol. Moreover, algae contain lipids that may undergo trans-esterification to biodiesel, and can be absorbed by heavy metals. In this study, extraction of lipids from Turbinaria turbinata (common brown alga) from the beach of Sharma, NEOM, Tabuk, Saudi Arabia by different solvents hexane, methanol, and hexane: methanol (1:1), and trans-esterification was performed to obtain biodiesel and investigated by GC.MS. The alga residue after fats extractions by different solvents was used in bioremediation synthetic wastewater containing 50 ppm of As-3, Co+2, Cu+2, Fe+2, Mn+2, and Zn+2. The residue of defatted alga was hydrolyzed by 2% H2SO4 and then fermented to obtain bioethanol. The combination of hexane: methanol (1:1) gave the greatest amount of petroleum hydrocarbons, which contain Tetradecane, 5-methyl, Octacosane, Pentatriacontane, and a small amount of Cyclotrisiloxane, Hexamethyl. The most effective removal % was obtained with alga residue defatted by hexane: methanol (1:1), and methanol, 100% removal of As-3, 83% Co+2, 95% Cu+2, 97.25% Fe+2, Mn+2 79.69%, Zn+2 90.15% with 2 g alga /L at 3 hours. The lowest value of sugar was obtained with hexane: methanol residue but gave the highest bioethanol efficiency. Thus, it is possible to use Turbinaria turbinata, or brown alga as a feedstock to produce bio-diesel, and bioethanol, and to remove heavy metals from wastewater, which may have a great economic and environmental significance.

Structure-activity relationship of anti-inflammatory meroterpenoids isolated from Dictyopteris polypodioides in RAW264 cells.

In this study, we explored anti-inflammatory compounds from the brown alga Dictyopteris polypodioides and isolated 7 meroterpenoids. Their anti-inflammatory activities were evaluated using the lipopolysaccharide-stimulated mouse macrophage cell line, RAW264. Yahazunol (1) exhibited similar nitric oxide (NO) production inhibitory activity as zonarol (2), which has previously been shown to be an anti-inflammatory compound. Yahazunol (1), zonarol (2), and isozonarol (3) inhibited not only NO production but also inducible nitric oxide synthase, interleukin-6, and C-C motif chemokine ligand 2 mRNA expression in RAW264 cells. The structure-activity relationships of the 11 compounds, including their synthetic analogs, revealed the significance of the hydroquinone moiety in the anti-inflammatory activity of these sesquiterpenoids in RAW264 cells. Diacetylated zonarol (9) exhibited an activity comparable to that of zonarol as a result of intracellular deacetylation. These results provide new insights into the anti-inflammatory activity of hydroquinone-containing natural products.

Interactions between U and V sex chromosomes during the life cycle of Ectocarpus.

In many animals and flowering plants, sex determination occurs in the diploid phase of the life cycle with XX/XY or ZW/ZZ sex chromosomes. However, in early diverging plants and most macroalgae, sex is determined by female (U) or male (V) sex chromosomes in a haploid phase called the gametophyte. Once the U and V chromosomes unite at fertilization to produce a diploid sporophyte, sex determination no longer occurs, raising key questions about the fate of the U and V sex chromosomes in the sporophyte phase. Here, we investigate genetic and molecular interactions of the UV sex chromosomes in both the haploid and diploid phases of the brown alga Ectocarpus. We reveal extensive developmental regulation of sex chromosome genes across its life cycle and implicate the TALE-HD transcription factor OUROBOROS in suppressing sex determination in the diploid phase. Small RNAs may also play a role in the repression of a female sex-linked gene, and transition to the diploid sporophyte coincides with major reconfiguration of histone H3K79me2, suggesting a more intricate role for this histone mark in Ectocarpus development than previously appreciated.

Repeated co-option of HMG-box genes for sex determination in brown algae and animals.

In many eukaryotes, genetic sex determination is not governed by XX/XY or ZW/ZZ systems but by a specialized region on the poorly studied U (female) or V (male) sex chromosomes. Previous studies have hinted at the existence of a dominant male-sex factor on the V chromosome in brown algae, a group of multicellular eukaryotes distantly related to animals and plants. The nature of this factor has remained elusive. Here, we demonstrate that an HMG-box gene acts as the male-determining factor in brown algae, mirroring the role HMG-box genes play in sex determination in animals. Over a billion-year evolutionary timeline, these lineages have independently co-opted the HMG box for male determination, representing a paradigm for evolution's ability to recurrently use the same genetic "toolkit" to accomplish similar tasks.

Fucoidan from the cell wall of Silvetia siliquosa with immunomodulatory effect on RAW 264.7 cells.

Silvetia siliquosa, the only species of the family Fucaceae in China, is used as a medicine food homology. Fucoidan from S. siliquosa was extracted by hot water twice thoroughly (13 % of total yield), and a purified fucoidan SSF with a molecular weight of 93 kD was obtained. Chemical composition analysis demonstrated that SSF was primarily composed of sulfate (21.68 wt%) and fucose (84 % of all neutral monosaccharides). IR, methylation analysis, NMR and ESI-MS results indicated SSF had the backbone of mainly (1 â†’ 3)-α-L-fucopyranose and minor (1 â†’ 4)-α-L-fucopyranose, with little 1,3 and 1,4 branched ß-D-Xylp and ß-D-Galp. The in vitro immunomodulatory test on RAW 264.7 cells showed that SSF could up-regulate the expression of immune related factors and proteins in a concentration-dependent manner, but the immunomodulatory effect disappeared from desulfated SSF. This research indicated that highly sulfated fucan possessed immunomodulatory effect and the importance of sulfate groups in the activity of SSF.

French Polynesian Scytosiphonaceae (Ectocarpales, Phaeophyceae): A combined molecular and morphological approach to their diversity and systematics.

This study revisited the taxonomy and diversity of brown macroalgae within the Scytosiphonaceae family in French Polynesia, which had previously been recognized as encompassing only six species. Using the chloroplast and mitochondrial genes rbcL, psbA, and cox3 as molecular markers in conjunction with morpho-anatomical observations, we unveiled the presence of 11 species spanning six genera: Chnoospora minima, Colpomenia claytoniae, Co. sinuosa [groups IIIa and IIIb], Hydroclathrus rapanuii, H. tenuis, H. tilesii, Manzaea minuta, Pseudochnoospora implexa, Rosenvingea australis, and the newly described species R. polynesiensis sp. nov. and R. tahitiensis sp. nov. This encompasses the recognition of two previously unreported genera in this region: Manzaea and Pseudochnoospora. Sequences were successfully acquired for four taxa that had been documented previously, while the absence of sequences for H. clathratus and H. tumulis in French Polynesia raises queries about their presence in this region. With these additions, the total species count now stands at 13 (including H. clathratus and H. tumulis), one being an endemic species. The molecular-assisted alpha taxonomic approach used here allowed for a critical revision of the Scytosiphonaceae species checklist for French Polynesia. The diversity revealed in this region accounts for a substantial 20% of the family's global diversity. Additionally, our study presents an updated species-level phylogeny for the Scytosiphonaceae.

Algal evolution: A touch of brown in a Paleozoic sea of greens and reds.

Previous molecular clock studies indicated a Mesozoic origin for the brown algae (Phaeophyceae). New research based on phylogenetic evidence challenges this notion and provides novel insights into the origin and diversification of brown algae, which includes multiple transitions within the group from isogamy to oogamy (and back again!).

Low-cost and efficient strategy for brown algal hydrolysis: Combination of alginate lyase and cellulase.

Brown algae are rich in biostimulants that not only stimulate the overall development and growth of plants but also have great beneficial effects on the whole soil-plant system. However, alginate, the major component of brown algae, is comparatively difficult to degrade. The cost of preparing alginate oligosaccharides (AOSs) is still too high to produce seaweed fertilizer. In this work, the marine bacterium Vibrio sp. B1Z05 is found to be capable of efficient alginate depolymerization and harbors an extended pathway for alginate metabolism. The B1Z05 extracellular cell-free supernatant exhibited great potential for AOS production at low cost, which, together with cellulase, can efficiently hydrolyze seaweed. The brown algal hydrolysis rates were significantly greater than those of the commercial alginate lyase product CE201, and the obtained seaweed extracts were rich in phytohormones. This work provides a low-cost but efficient strategy for the sustainable production of desirable AOSs and seaweed fertilizer.

The physiological activities of fucoidan and its application in animal breeding.

Fucoidan, a water-soluble heteropolysaccharide predominantly found in brown algae, comprises active components such as fucose and sulfate groups. This polysaccharide exhibits a range of physiological activities, including antioxidant, antiviral, anticancer, and immunomodulatory activities. In light of the global prohibition of antibiotics in animal feed, there is increasing interest in identifying safe, natural antibiotic alternatives that lack toxic side effects. This study focuses on analysing the impact of fucoidan in animal husbandry and provides a comprehensive review of the methods for preparing fucoidan, along with its physical and chemical characteristics. Its applications in the breeding of aquatic species, livestock, and poultry have also been summarized. The aim of this study was to establish a theoretical framework for the use of fucoidan in animal husbandry and to contribute to the theoretical underpinnings of the animal breeding and feed industries.