Croton stipulaceus Kunth, a native Mexican medicinal plant with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities / Croton stipulaceus Kunth, planta medicinal mexicana con actividad antioxidante y antiinflamatoria

Leaves of Croton stipulaceuswere extracted (EHex, ECHCl3and EEtOH extracts) to assesstheir antioxidant potential, anti-inflammatory activity in murine models and acute toxicity. EEtOH showed the highest effect in DPPH (37.80% inhibition), FRAP (1065.00 ± 55.30 µmolFe2+) and total polyphenols (231.24 ± 9.05 meq AG/gM). EHex was the most active, ~ 50% inhibition of TPA-induced ear edema; while EEtOH (dose of 2 mg/ear) showed the highest inhibition in the chronic model (97% inhibition), and inhibited MPO activity (48%). In carrageenan-induced edema, ECHCl3(dose 500 mg/kg) was the most active. None of the extracts showed acute toxicity (LD50) at 2 g/kg (p.o.). This work is the first report that supports the traditional use of C. stipulaceusas an anti-inflammatory.

De las hojas de Croton stipulaceusse obtuvieron diferentes extractos (EHex, ECHCl3y EEtOH) evaluando el potencial antioxidante y la actividad antiinflamatoria en modelos murinos y la toxicidad aguda. El EEtOH mostró mayor efecto en DPPH (37.80% inhibición), FRAP (1065.00 ± 55.30 µmolFe2+) y polifenolestotales (231.24 ± 9.05 meq AG/gM). El EHex fue el más activo, cercano al 50% de inhibición del edema auricular inducido con TPA; mientras que el EEtOH (dosis de 2 mg/oreja) mostró la mayor inhibición en el modelo crónico (97% inhibición), e inhibió la actividad de la MPO (48%). En el edema inducido con carragenina, el ECHCl3(dosis 500 mg/kg) fue el más activo. Ninguno de los extractos mostró una toxicidad aguda (DL50) mayor a 2 g/kg (p.o). Este trabajo es el primer reporte que sustenta el uso tradicional de C. stipulaceuscomo antiinflamatorio.

Heterogeneity of transport and metabolism of Tormentillae rhizoma constituents across human intestinal epithelium cellular model.

Tormentilla erecta (L.) Raeusch is a widespread plant in Europe and Western Asia. Its rhizomes (Tormentilae rhizoma) are the main ingredient of herbal alcoholic beverages and can be used as a natural preservative in beer production. Apart from its unique taste qualities, therapeutic properties in gastrointestinal tract ailments are attributed to the tincture obtained from Tormentillae rhizoma. The presented research aimed to determine the mutual relationship between the components of Tormentillae tincture, present in popular alcoholic beverages, and intestinal epithelium (Caco-2 cell monolayers). A comprehensive qualitative and quantitative analysis of the tincture was performed, including the determination of condensed and hydrolyzable tannins as well as triterpenoids (UHPLC-DAD-MS/MS). Incubation of the tincture with Caco-2 monolayers has shown that only triterpenes pass through the monolayer, while condensed tannins are mainly bound to the monolayer surface. Ellagic acid derivatives were the only components of the Tormentillae tinctura being metabolized by cell monolayers to the compounds not previously described in the literature, which may be crucial in the treatment of intestinal diseases with inflammatory background.

Synergistic effects of superfine grinding and high hydrostatic pressure on the contents, distribution, digestive behaviors and antioxidant activities of polyphenols in barley leaves.

Barley leaves (BLs) naturally contained abundant phenolics, most of which are hardly completely released from food matrix during gastrointestinal digestion. Superfine grinding (SFG) and high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) are generally used to treat the functional plants due to their effectiveness to cell wall-breaking and improvement of nutraceutical bioavailability. Thus, this study investigated the synergistic effects of SFG and HHP (100, 300, 500 MPa/20 min) on the bioaccessbility of typical phenolics in BLs during the simulated in-vitro digestion. The results demonstrated that the highest bioaccessbility (40.98%) was found in the ultrafine sample with HHP at 500 MPa. CLSM and SEM confirmed SFG led to microstructurally rapture of BLs. Moreover, the recovery index of ABTS radical scavenging activity and FRAP of HHP-treated ultrafine and fine BLs samples maximumly increased by 53.62% and 9.61%, respectively. This study is expecting to provide the theoretical basis to improve the consumer acceptance of BLs.

Characterization of the active components and bioaccessibility of phenolics in differently colored foxtail millets.

Differently colored foxtail millet (Setaria italica) cultivars were compared regarding their amylose, B-complex vitamin, vitamin E, and phenolic compositions, as well as the bioaccessibility of their phenolics in simulated in vitro digestion. Dark-colored foxtail millets contained more thiamine, pyridoxine, and tocopherols, but less riboflavin, than light-colored ones. Phenolics were more abundant in dark-colored cultivars. Insoluble bound fractions accounted for 75%-83% of the total phenolics, with ferulic acid detected as the most plentiful compound. The major bioaccessible phenolic was free ferulic acid, with 100%-120% bioaccessibility, depending on cultivar, followed by p-coumaric acid and isoferulic acid (50%-80%). These relatively high bioaccessibilities were likely due to the release of soluble conjugated or insoluble bound phenolics during digestion. However, the contents of other free phenolics were largely decreased following in vitro digestion, resulting in low bioaccessibility, which also means that the release from the conjugated and bound fractions was poor.

Assessment of bioactive compound variations and in-vitro and in-vivo antioxidant activity in edible fresh and processed Bambusa nutans shoot through FTIR, GC/MS and HPLC analyses.

This study explores the impact of processing techniques on the bioactive composition and antioxidant properties of Bambusa nutans shoots, an underutilized superfood. Boiling resulted in a significant reduction of total phenols (39.52%), flavonoid (8.07%), and tannin (27.77%). Conversely, fermentation increased total phenols (25.92%), tannin (34.72%), and phytosterol (75.39%). Antioxidant activities were notably higher in fermented-shoots, as indicated by DPPH and FRAP assays, and in-vivo experiments demonstrated increased GSH (31.85%) and decreased LPO levels (11.12%) post-administration of fermented-shoots extract. Spectral analysis revealed an increased diversity of compounds in fermented shoots, with GC/MS identifying hexadecane-1-ol in significantly higher proportions and 11 characteristic bands in FTIR spectra. HPLC analysis demonstrated changes in phenolic acids and flavonoid content, with fermentation enhancing 3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoic acid, 4'-hydroxycinnamic acid, benzene-1,2-diol, and luteolin contents. This study underscores the dynamic nature of B. nutans shoots, highlighting the potential for enhanced bioactivity and antioxidant properties through fermentation, offering promising avenues for culinary and pharmaceutical developments.

Comparative metabolomics profiling reveals the unique bioactive compounds and astringent taste formation of rosehips.

Rosehips are a prominent source of numerous bioactive compounds. However, despite their extensive potential, the metabolic profiles among different rosehip species have not been fully elucidated. In this study, 523 secondary metabolites from rosehips of 12 Rosa species were identified using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. They were primarily composed of flavonoids and phenolic acids. A K-means analysis revealed the characteristic metabolites in different rosehips. For example, R. persica contained a more abundant supply of phenolic acids, while R. roxburghii harbored a richer array of terpenoids. A total of 73 key active ingredients were screened from traditional Chinese medicine databases, and they indicated that R. persica is more promising for use in functional foods or health supplements compared with the other fruits. Moreover, a differential analysis identified 47 compounds as potential contributors to the astringent taste of rosehips, including ellagic acid 4-O-glucoside and cadaverine. This study provides valuable information to develop new functional foods of rosehips and improve the quality of their fruits.

In vitro simulated digestion and fermentation characteristics of pectic polysaccharides from fresh passion fruit (Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa L.) peel.

In this study, two pectic polysaccharides (PFP-T and PFP-UM) were extracted from fresh passion fruit peels using three-phase partitioning (TPP) and sequential ultrasound-microwave-assisted TPP methods, respectively, and their effects on the in vitro gastrointestinal digestion and fecal fermentation characteristics were examined. The results indicate that gastrointestinal digestion has a minimal effect on the physicochemical and structural characteristics of PFP-T and PFP-UM. However, during in vitro fecal fermentation, both undigested PFP-T and PFP-UM are significantly degraded and utilized by intestinal microorganisms, showing increased the total relative abundance of Firmicutes and Bacteroidota in the intestinal flora. Notably, compared with PFP-UM, PFP-T better promoted the reproduction of beneficial bacteria such as Prevotella, Megasphaera and Dialister, while suppressed the growth of harmful genera including Escherichia-Shigella, producing higher content of short-chain fatty acids. Therefore, our findings suggest that PFP-T derived from passion fruit peel has potential as a dietary supplement for promoting intestinal health.

Exploring the bioaccessibility of polyphenols and glucosinolates from Brassicaceae microgreens by combining metabolomics profiling and computational chemometrics.

Microgreens constitute natural-based foods with health-promoting properties mediated by the accumulation of glucosinolates (GLs) and phenolic compounds (PCs), although their bioaccessibility may limit their nutritional potential. This work subjected eight Brassicaceae microgreens to in vitro gastrointestinal digestion and large intestine fermentation before the metabolomics profiling of PCs and GLs. The application of multivariate statistics effectively discriminated among species and their interaction with in vitro digestion phases. The flavonoids associated with arugula and the aliphatic GLs related to red cabbage and cauliflower were identified as discriminant markers among microgreen species. The multi-omics integration along in vitro digestion and fermentation predicted bioaccessible markers, featuring potential candidates that may eventually be responsible for these functional foods' nutritional properties. This combined analytical and computational framework provided a promising platform to predict the nutritional metabolome-wide outcome of functional food consumption, as in the case of microgreens.

Effect of Phenol and Alkylamide Interaction on α-Glucosidase Inhibition and Cellular Antioxidant Activity during In Vitro Digestion: Using Szechuan Pepper (Zanthoxylum genus) as a Model.

Although recent evidence indicated significant phenol and alkylamide interaction in aqueous solutions, the gastrointestinal digestion influence of the combination remains unclear. This study aims to investigate phenol and alkylamide interaction during in vitro digestion, focusing on bioaccessibility and bioactivity, including α-glucosidase inhibition and cellular antioxidant activity. Additionally, the structural mechanism of phenol and alkylamide interaction during in vitro digestion was explored. The results indicated that the presence of phenols and alkylamides significantly increased or decreased their respective bioaccessibility, depending on the Zanthoxylum varieties. Furthermore, although antagonistic phenol/alkylamide interaction was evident during α-glucosidase inhibition, cellular oxidative stress alleviation, and antioxidant gene transcription upregulation, this effect weakened gradually as digestion progressed. Glycoside bond cleavage and the methylation of phenols as well as alkylamide isomerization and addition were observed during digestion, modifying the hydrogen bonding sites and interaction behavior. This study provided insights into the phenol/alkylamide interaction in the gastrointestinal tract.

Determination of Flavonoids and Phenolic Acids in the Liver of Wistar Rats after a Dietary Enrichment with Corinthian Currant (Vitis vinifera L., var. Apyrena): A Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry Study.

Corinthian currants are dried fruits produced from Vitis vinifera L. var. Apyrena grape. This study investigated the distribution of phenolic compounds in male Wistar rat livers following two distinct Corinthian currant long-term dietary intake protocols (3 and 10% w/w). Method optimization, comparing fresh and lyophilized tissues, achieved satisfactory recoveries (>70%) for most analytes. Enzymatic hydrolysis conditions (37 °C, pH 5.0) minimally affected phenolics, but enzyme addition showed diverse effects. Hydrolyzed lyophilized liver tissue from rats consuming Corinthian currants (3 and 10% w/w) exhibited elevated levels of isorhamnetin (20.62 ± 2.27 ng/g tissue and 33.80 ± 1.38 ng/g tissue, respectively), along with similar effects for kaempferol, quercetin, and chrysin after prolonged Corinthian currant intake. This suggests their presence as phase II metabolites in the fasting-state liver. This study is the first to explore phenolic accumulation in rat liver, simulating real conditions of dried fruit consumption, as seen herein with Corinthian currant.

Key umami taste contributors in Longjing green tea uncovered by integrated means of sensory quantitative descriptive analysis, metabolomics, quantification analysis and taste addition experiments.

Umami taste is a key criteria of green tea quality evaluation. The aim of this study was to comprehensively explore the key umami taste contributors in Longjing tea. The taste and molecular profiles of 36 Longjing green tea infusions were characterized by sensory quantitative descriptive analysis and LC-MS based metabolomics, respectively. By uni-/multi-variate statistical analysis, 84 differential compounds were screened among tea infusions with varied umami perceptions. Among them, 17 substances were identified as candidate umami-enhancing compounds, which showed significant positive correlations with umami intensities. Their natural concentrations were accurately quantified, and their umami taste-modifying effects were further investigated by taste addition into glutamic acid solution. Glutamic acid, aspartic acid, glutamine, theanine, phenylalanine, histidine, theogallin, galloylglucose, 1,2,6-trigalloylglucose significantly enhanced the umami taste. This study uncovered for the first time of some bitter amino acids and galloylglucose homologous series as important umami-enhancers, which provided a novel perspective into the tea taste.

Tibetan kefir grains fermentation alters physicochemical properties and improves antioxidant activities of Lycium barbarum pulp polysaccharides.

There is a lack of research on how Tibetan kefir grains fermentation alters the physicochemical properties and biological activity of Lycium barbarum pulp polysaccharides, despite some reports that fermentation can affect the structure and activity of plant polysaccharides. This study demonstrated that, through fermentation, the molecular weight of polysaccharides decreased from 25.33 to 15.11 kg/mol while the contents of total sugar and uronic acid increased by 19.11% and 40.38%, respectively. Furthermore, after fermentation, the polysaccharides exhibited an uneven and rough surface along with a reduced number of branched chains and triple helix structures. Tibetan kefir grains fermentation enhanced the antioxidant activity of polysaccharides, which may be attributed to an increase in arabinose, galactose, and uronic acid content and a decrease in polysaccharide molecular weight. This research offers an alternative viewpoint on the potential application of Tibetan kefir grains-fermented Lycium barbarum pulp polysaccharides in functional foods.

Rapid biotransformation of STW 5 constituents by human gut microbiome from IBS- and non-IBS donors.

STW 5, a blend of nine medicinal plant extracts, exhibits promising efficacy in treating functional gastrointestinal disorders, notably irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Nonetheless, its effects on the gastrointestinal microbiome and the role of microbiota on the conversion of its constituents are still largely unexplored. This study employed an experimental ex vivo model to investigate STW 5's differential effects on fecal microbial communities and metabolite production in samples from individuals with and without IBS. Using 560 fecal microcosms (IBS patients, n = 6; healthy controls, n = 10), we evaluated the influence of pre-digested STW 5 and controls on microbial and metabolite composition at time points 0, 0.5, 4, and 24 h. Our findings demonstrate the potential of this ex vivo platform to analyze herbal medicine turnover within 4 h with minimal microbiome shifts due to abiotic factors. While only minor taxonomic disparities were noted between IBS- and non-IBS samples and upon treatment with STW 5, rapid metabolic turnover of STW 5 components into specific degradation products, such as 18ß-glycyrrhetinic acid, davidigenin, herniarin, 3-(3-hydroxyphenyl)propanoic acid, and 3-(2-hydroxy-4-methoxyphenyl)propanoic acid occurred. For davidigenin, 3-(3-hydroxyphenyl)propanoic acid and 18ß-glycyrrhetinic acid, anti-inflammatory, cytoprotective, or spasmolytic activities have been previously described. Notably, the microbiome-driven metabolic transformation did not induce a global microbiome shift, and the detected metabolites were minimally linked to specific taxa. Observed biotransformations were independent of IBS diagnosis, suggesting potential benefits for IBS patients from biotransformation products of STW 5. IMPORTANCE: STW 5 is an herbal medicinal product with proven clinical efficacy in the treatment of functional gastrointestinal disorders, like functional dyspepsia and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). The effects of STW 5 on fecal microbial communities and metabolite production effects have been studied in an experimental model with fecal samples from individuals with and without IBS. While only minor taxonomic disparities were noted between IBS- and non-IBS samples and upon treatment with STW 5, rapid metabolic turnover of STW 5 components into specific degradation products with reported anti-inflammatory, cytoprotective, or spasmolytic activities was observed, which may be relevant for the pharmacological activity of STW 5.

Biotransformation of Cacumen platycladi Extract by Lactiplantibacillus plantarum CCFM1348 Promotes Hair Growth in Mice.

Cacumen platycladi (CP) is a frequently used traditional Chinese medicine to treat hair loss. In this study, CP fermented by Lactiplantibacillus plantarum CCFM1348 increased the proliferation of human dermal papilla cells. In an in vivo assay, compared to nonfermented CP, postbiotics (fermented CP) and synbiotics (live bacteria with nonfermented CP) promoted hair growth in mice. The Wnt/ß-catenin signaling pathway plays crucial roles in the development of hair follicles, including growth cycle restart and maintenance. Both postbiotics and synbiotics upregulated ß-catenin, a major factor of the Wnt/ß-catenin signaling pathway. Postbiotics and synbiotics also increased the vascular endothelial growth factor expression and decreased the BAX/Bcl2 ratio in the dorsal skin of mice. These results suggest that fermented CP by L. plantarum CCFM1348 may promote hair growth through regulating the Wnt/ß-catenin signaling pathway, promoting the expression of growth factors and reducing apoptosis.

Charting the Cannabis plant chemical space with computational metabolomics.

INTRODUCTION: The chemical classification of Cannabis is typically confined to the cannabinoid content, whilst Cannabis encompasses diverse chemical classes that vary in abundance among all its varieties. Hence, neglecting other chemical classes within Cannabis strains results in a restricted and biased comprehension of elements that may contribute to chemical intricacy and the resultant medicinal qualities of the plant. OBJECTIVES: Thus, herein, we report a computational metabolomics study to elucidate the Cannabis metabolic map beyond the cannabinoids. METHODS: Mass spectrometry-based computational tools were used to mine and evaluate the methanolic leaf and flower extracts of two Cannabis cultivars: Amnesia haze (AMNH) and Royal dutch cheese (RDC). RESULTS: The results revealed the presence of different chemical compound classes including cannabinoids, but extending it to flavonoids and phospholipids at varying distributions across the cultivar plant tissues, where the phenylpropnoid superclass was more abundant in the leaves than in the flowers. Therefore, the two cultivars were differentiated based on the overall chemical content of their plant tissues where AMNH was observed to be more dominant in the flavonoid content while RDC was more dominant in the lipid-like molecules. Additionally, in silico molecular docking studies in combination with biological assay studies indicated the potentially differing anti-cancer properties of the two cultivars resulting from the elucidated chemical profiles. CONCLUSION: These findings highlight distinctive chemical profiles beyond cannabinoids in Cannabis strains. This novel mapping of the metabolomic landscape of Cannabis provides actionable insights into plant biochemistry and justifies selecting certain varieties for medicinal use.

Comprehensive antifungal investigation of natural plant extracts against Neosartorya spp. (Aspergillus spp.) of agriculturally significant microbiological contaminants and shaping their metabolic profile.

Fungi belonging to the genus Neosartorya (teleomorph of Aspergillus spp.) are of great concern in the production and storage of berries and fruit-based products, mainly due to the production of thermoresistant ascospores that cause food spoilage and possible secretion of mycotoxins. We initially tested the antifungal effect of six natural extracts against 20 isolates of Neosartorya spp. using a traditional inhibition test on Petri dishes. Tested isolates did not respond uniformly, creating 5 groups of descending sensitivity. Ten isolates best representing of the established sensitivity clusters were chosen for further investigation using a Biolog™ MT2 microplate assay with the same 6 natural extracts. Additionally, to test for metabolic profile changes, we used a Biolog™ FF microplate assay after pre-incubation with marigold extract. All natural extracts had an inhibitory effect on Neosartorya spp. growth and impacted its metabolism. Lavender and tea tree oil extracts at a concentration of 1000 µg mL-1 presented the strongest antifungal effect during the inhibition test, however all extracts exhibited inhibitory properties at even the lowest dose (5 µg mL-1). The fungal stress response in the presence of marigold extract was characterized by a decrease of amino acids and carbohydrates consumption and an uptake of carboxylic acids on the FF microplates, where the 10 studied isolates also presented differences in their innate resilience, creating 3 distinctive sensitivity groups of high, average and low sensitivity. The results confirm that natural plant extracts and essential oils inhibit and alter the growth and metabolism of Neosartorya spp. suggesting a possible future use in sustainable agriculture as an alternative to chemical fungicides used in traditional crop protection.

Evaluation of Antifungal Activity of Endophytic Bacillus spp. and Identification of Secondary Metabolites Produced Against the Phytopathogenic Fungi.

Endophytic bacteria serve as a rich source of diverse antimicrobial compounds. Recently, there has been a growing interest in utilizing endophytic Bacillus spp. as biological agents against phytogenic fungi, owing to their potential to produce a wide range of antimicrobial substances. The objective of this research was to investigate the protective abilities of 15 endophytic Bacillus spp. isolated from previous study from wheat plant, against the phytopathogenic fungi, Fusarium graminearum and Macrophomina phaseolina. A dual culture plate assay was conducted as a preliminary analysis, revealing that 7 out of 15 endophytic Bacillus spp. demonstrated inhibition against one or both of the phytopathogenic fungi used in this study. All seven endophytes were further assessed for the presence of diffusible antifungal metabolites. The cultures were grown in potato dextrose broth for 120 h, and the cell-free supernatant was extracted and analyzed using the cup plate method. The methanolic extract yielded similar results to the dual culture plate analysis, except for WL2-15. Additionally, deformities in the mycelial structure were examined under the light microscope upon exposure to methanolic extract. Furthermore, the analysis and identification of metabolites were carried out via gas chromatography-mass spectrometry of methanolic extract from selected seven endophytic Bacillus spp. The chromatogram revealed the presence of some major peaks such as tridecanoic acid, methyl ester, hydroperoxide, 1-methylbutyl, 9-octadecenamide, (z)-, hexane-1,3,4-triol, 3,5-dimethyl- tetradecanoic acid. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of these biocontrol agents in endophytic Bacillus spp. Interestingly, volatile organic compound production was also seen in all the isolates against the phytopathogenic fungi.

Analysis of Lemon Verbena Polyphenol Metabolome and Its Correlation with Oxidative Stress under Glucotoxic Conditions in Adipocyte.

Lemon verbena has been shown to ameliorate obesity-related oxidative stress, but the intracellular final effectors underlying its antioxidant activity are still unknown. The purpose of this study was to correlate the antioxidant capacity of plasma metabolites of lemon verbena (verbascoside, isoverbascoside, hydroxytyrosol, caffeic acid, ferulic acid, homoprotocatechuic acid, and luteolin-7-diglucuronide) with their uptake and intracellular metabolism in hypertrophic adipocytes under glucotoxic conditions. To this end, intracellular ROS levels were measured, and the intracellular metabolites were identified and quantified by high-performance liquid chromatography with a diode array detector coupled to mass spectrometry (HPLC-DAD-MS). The results showed that the plasma metabolites of lemon verbena are absorbed by adipocytes and metabolized through phase II reactions and that the intracellular appearance of these metabolites correlates with the decrease in the level of glucotoxicity-induced oxidative stress. It is postulated that the biotransformation and accumulation of these metabolites in adipocytes contribute to the long-term antioxidant activity of the extract.

LC-MS and MALDI-MSI-based metabolomic approaches provide insights into the spatial-temporal metabolite profiles of Tartary buckwheat achene development.

Tartary buckwheat, celebrated as the "king of grains" for its flavonoid and phenolic acid richness, has health-promoting properties. Despite significant morphological and metabolic variations in mature achenes, research on their developmental process is limited. Utilizing Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and atmospheric pressure matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry imaging, we conducted spatial-temporal metabolomics on two cultivars during achene development. Metabolic profiles including 17 phenolic acids and 83 flavonoids are influenced by both varietal distinctions and developmental intricacies. Notably, flavonols, as major flavonoids, accumulated with achene ripening and showed a tissue-specific distribution. Specifically, flavonol glycosides and aglycones concentrated in the embryo, while methylated flavonols and procyanidins in the hull. Black achenes at the green achene stage have higher bioactive compounds and enhanced antioxidant capacity. These findings provide insights into spatial and temporal characteristics of metabolites in Tartary buckwheat achenes and serve as a theoretical guide for selecting optimal resources for food production.

Multiple metabolite profiles uncover remarkable bioactive compounds and metabolic characteristics of noni fruit (Morinda citrifolia L.) at various stages of ripeness.

This study aimed to investigate the changes in physicochemical properties, bioactive compounds, and metabolic characteristics of noni fruit at different ripeness levels. The results showed that there were significant differences in physicochemical properties. HPLC analysis was conducted, revealing succinic acid, scopoletin, deacetylasperulosidic acid, and asperulosidic acid were key bioactive compounds as the fruit ripened. Additionally, 4 differentbiomarkers (isocitric acid, 4,4-thiodiphenol, lobaric acid, and octocrylene), identified using 1HNMR and LC-IT-TOF-MS, were found to have a VIP value over 1. The results from HS-GC-IMS demonstrated noteworthy that 14 volatile compounds were identified as highly discriminative features during fruit ripening. Furthermore, correlation analysis showed that different ripeness had significant effects on bioactive components and functional activities, e.g., the inhibition rate of enzyme and E. coli of noni fruit with different ripeness exceeded 90% at the last stage. This study contributes new insights into the effective utilization of bioactive ingredients in noni fruit.