Presurgical Perspective and Postsurgical Evaluation of Plantar Plate and Turf Toe.

Capsuloligamentous injury of the first metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joint (eponymously called "turf toe") mostly occurs in athletes and involves acute trauma, whereas tears of the lesser MTP joint plantar plate typically are an attritional-degenerative condition. This article reviews the anatomy, pathophysiology, mechanism and patterns of injury, grading and classification of injury, imaging appearances (pre- and postoperative), and management of first MTP joint capsuloligamentous injuries and lesser MTP joint plantar plate tears. These two distinct pathologies are discussed in separate sections.

Morphological features of the lateral plantar ligament of the transverse metatarsal arch.

The aim of this study was to elucidate the morphological characteristics of the lateral Lisfranc ligament in a large sample. This investigation examined 100 legs from 50 cadavers. Each of the lower limbs was dissected to identify the plantar aspect of the transverse metatarsal arch, and morphological characteristics of the lateral plantar ligament were assessed, including the length, width, and thickness of the fiber bundles. The majority of plantar ligaments originated from the base of M5 and the plantar aspect of the lateral cuneiform (LC). The lateral plantar ligament could be classified into three types: Type I, a band-like fiber bundle originating from the base of M5 to the LC (41%); Type II, originating from the base of M5 and the plantar aspect of LC and mostly connected the blending the fiber bundles of the tibialis posterior (TP) and long plantar ligament (LPL) (21%); and Type III, with no ligaments originating from the base of M5 and plantar aspect of the LC (38%). The morphological characteristics of Type I lateral plantar ligament were as follows: length, 31.8 ± 3.7 mm; width, 2.3 ± 1.0 mm; and thickness, 0.2 ± 0.3 mm. The morphology of the lateral plantar ligament showed variation, originating from the base of M5 and the plantar aspect of LC most commonly, but this was not the case in 38% of limbs. The findings suggest that the lateral plantar ligament might play a role in the transverse tarsal arch, indicating a cooperative mechanism with the TP and LPL.

Ultrasonography Comparison of the Plantar Fascia and Tibialis Anterior in People With and Without Lateral Ankle Sprain: A Case-Control Study.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the thickness of the plantar fascia (PF) at the insertion of the calcaneus and the midfoot and forefoot fascial locations, in addition to the thickness of the tibialis anterior, by ultrasound imaging in individuals with and without lateral ankle sprain (LAS). METHODS: A sample of 44 participants was recruited and divided in 2 groups: 22 feet with a prior diagnosis of grade 1 or 2 LAS (case group) and 22 feet without this condition (healthy group). The thickness and cross-sectional area were evaluated by ultrasound imaging in both groups. RESULTS: Ultrasound measurements of the PF at the calcaneus, midfoot, and forefoot showed statistically significant differences (P < .05), with a decrease in thickness in the LAS group relative to the healthy group. For the thickness and cross-sectional area of the tibialis anterior, no significant differences (P < .05) were observed between groups. CONCLUSION: The thickness of the PF at the calcaneus, midfoot, and forefoot is reduced in individuals with LAS relative to the healthy group.

Morphological characteristics of the Lisfranc ligament.

BACKGROUND: This study aimed to clarify the morphological characteristics of the Lisfranc ligament and the cuneiform 1-metatarsal 2&3 plantar ligament (CMPL). METHODS: Forty legs from 20 cadavers were examined. Classification proceeded according to the number of fiber bundles in the Lisfranc ligament and the CMPL. Morphological features measured were fiber bundle length, width, thickness, and angle. RESULTS: In Type I-a, the Lisfranc ligament and the CMPL were a single fiber bundle; in Type I-b, the Lisfranc ligament was a single fiber bundle, and the CMPL was two fiber bundles; in Type II-a, the Lisfranc ligament was a two fiber bundle, and the CMPL was a single fiber bundle; in Type II-b, the Lisfranc ligament and the CMPL were two fiber bundles; in Type III-a, the Lisfranc ligament was three fiber bundles, and the CMPL was a single fiber bundle; in Type III-b, the Lisfranc ligament was three fiber bundles, and the CMPL was two fiber bundles; in Type IV, the Lisfranc ligament and the CMPL could not be separated. Type I-a was seen in 37.5%, Type I-b in 10%, Type II-a in 30%, Type II-b in 7.5%, Type III-a in 7.5%, Type III-b in 2.5%, and Type IV in 5%. The Lisfranc ligament was significantly larger than the CMPL in total fiber bundle width, total fiber bundle thickness, and total fiber bundle angle. CONCLUSION: The Lisfranc ligament had up to 3 fiber bundles and the CMPL had one or two fiber bundles; classifications were four types and two subgroups.

Association of quadriceps angle with plantar pressure distribution, navicular height and calcaneo-tibial angle.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of study was to analyze the association between Quadriceps Angle (QA) and plantar pressure, navicular height (NH), and calcaneo-tibial angle (CTA). METHODS: A total of 64 volunteers (mean age: 22.25 ± 2.54 (range:19-33)) participated in this cross sectional study. EMED-m (Novel GmbH, Germany) electronic pedobarograph was employed for dynamic plantar pressure measurement using two step protocol. The angle between the vertical axis of calcaneus and the long axis of Achilles tendon for CTA. The height of navicular tubercle from the ground was measured while the subject was standing on both feet for NH. QA was measured while the subject was standing in a relaxed posture where both feet bearing equal weight. RESULTS: There were significant negative correlations between QA and maximum force (MxF) under the 4th. metatarsal head (MH4). The QA was also significantly correlated with MxF and force-time integral (FTI) under the bigtoe (BT). FTI under the 3rd. metatarsal head (MH3), MH4 and 5th. metatarsal head (MH5) were significantly negatively correlated with QA. Pressure-time integral (PTI) under the MH4 and MH5 were found to be significantly negatively correlated with QA. A significant correlation was also found between QA and NH (p < 0.0001), whilst there was no correlation between QA and CTA. Regression analysis showed that NH was appeared as the major contributor for the QA (ß = -0.49, p < 0.001) in the dynamic condition, followed by BT-FTI (ß = 0.37, p < 0.001) and MH5-MxF (ß = -0.21, p < 0.037). CONCLUSION: These findings may imply that the NH which can at least be controlled by appropriate shoe inserts may affect QA. This way, loading pattern of both plantar region and whole lower extremity may be altered. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III, Diagnostic Study.

Operative Outcomes of Grade 3 Turf Toe Injuries in Competitive Football Players.

BACKGROUND: Turf toe is a term used to describe a hyperextension injury to the first metatarsophalangeal joint. Although the vast majority of turf toe injuries can be treated successfully without operative intervention, there are instances where surgery is required to allow the athlete to return to play. Although there is a plethora of literature on turf toe injuries and nonoperative management, there are currently few reports on operative outcomes in athletes. METHODS: We obtained all cases of turf toe repair according to the ICD-10 procedural code. The inclusion criteria included: age greater than 16, turf toe injury requiring operative management and at least a varsity level high school football player. The charts were reviewed for age, BMI, level of competition, injury mechanism, football position, setting of injury and playing surface. In addition, we recorded the specifics of the operative procedure, a listing of all injured structures, the implants used and the great toe range of motion at final follow-up visit. The AOFAS Hallux score and VAS was used postoperatively as our outcome measures. Our patient population included 15 patients. The average follow-up time was 27.5 months. RESULTS: The average patient was 19.3 years old with a body mass index of 32.3. The average playing time missed was 16.5 weeks. The average dorsiflexion range of motion at the final follow-up was 42.3 degrees. At final follow-up, the average AOFAS Hallux score was 91.3. The average VAS pain score was 0.7 at rest and 0.8 with physical activity. CONCLUSION: Complete turf toe injuries are often debilitating and may require operative management to restore a pain-free, stable, and functional forefoot. This study represents the largest cohort of operatively treated grade 3 turf toe injuries in the literature and demonstrates that good clinical outcomes were achieved with operative repair. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IV, case series.

Characteristics of Plantar Loads During Walking in Patients with Knee Osteoarthritis.

BACKGROUND Knee osteoarthritis (KOA) is a common disease that can change the load on lower limbs during walking. Plantar loads in patients with KOA may provide a basis for clinical decisions regarding footwear and foot orthoses. This study aimed to compare plantar loads in females with and without KOA during gait. MATERIAL AND METHODS Plantar pressure during walking was recorded in 23 females with KOA and 23 females without KOA. Maximum force (MF), contact area (CA), and peak pressure (PP) were measured at 7 different regions underneath the foot, named heel (M1), midfoot (M2), first metatarsophalangeal joint (MPJ) (M3), second MPJ (M4), third to fifth MPJ (M5), hallux (M6), and lesser toes (M7). RESULTS PPs for M2 and (M3) in females with KOA were higher than those in females without KOA. High PPs were also found in females with KOA for M2, M3, and M4. CONCLUSIONS Increased plantar loading in females with KOA may lead to foot pronation and gait changes during walking. Plantar loading may be offered to patients with KOA when considering footwear and foot orthoses.

MR Imaging of the Plantar Plate: Normal Anatomy, Turf Toe, and Other Injuries.

The metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joint complex is a weight-bearing structure important to the biomechanics of the standing position, walking, shoe wearing, and sport participation. Acute dorsiflexion injury of the first MTP joint, "turf toe," is common among American football and soccer players. The first and lesser MTP joint complexes can be affected by degenerative or inflammatory arthritis, infarct, and infection. These conditions can lead to plantar plate disruption. Imaging studies help physicians to properly diagnose and treat this condition. This article reviews the anatomy, diagnostic imaging, and clinical management of injury and pathology of the first and lesser MTP joint complexes.

Metatarsophalangeal joint stability: a systematic review on the plantar plate of the lesser toes.

BACKGROUND: Instability of the metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joints of the lesser toes (digiti 2-5) is increasingly being treated by repair of the plantar plate (PP). This systematic review examines the anatomy of the plantar plate of the lesser toes, and the relation between the integrity of the plantar plates of the lesser toes and lesser MTP joint stability. METHODS: The databases of Embase.com, Medline (Ovid), Web of Science, Scopus, Cochrane, Pubmed not medline, Cinahl (ebsco), ProQuest, Lilacs, Scielo and Google Scholar were searched in June 2015 from inception. Studies were included if they were in English, contained primary data, and had a focus on plantar plate anatomy of the lesser toes or on the relationship between integrity of the plantar plate and MTP joint (in)stability. Study characteristics were extracted into two main tables and descriptive anatomical and histological data were summarized into one schematic 3D drawing of the plantar plate. RESULTS: Nine studies were included in this systematic review, of which five addressed plantar plate anatomy as such and four focused directly and indirectly on plantar plate integrity related to MTP joint stability. CONCLUSION: This is the first systematic review regarding plantar plate anatomy related to MTP joint stability of the lesser toes. This review iterates the importance of plantar plate anatomy and integrity for MTP joint stability, and it delineates the lack of primary data regarding plantar plate anatomy of the lesser toes and MTP joint stability.

Normal sonoanatomy of the paediatric entheses including echostructure and vascularisation changes during growth.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the sonoanatomy of paediatric lower-limb entheses according to age and gender. We studied sites that most commonly involved entheses in spondyloarthritis. METHODS: We studied 41 consecutive healthy children (20 girls, 21 boys; age 2-15 years) divided into four age groups: 2-4 years (n = 9), 5-7 years (n = 11), 8-12 years (n = 12) and 13-15 years (n = 9). Ultrasound was used to obtain both transverse and longitudinal views of each enthesis. We assessed the echostructural components of the lower limb entheses and the vascularisation of the entheses and cartilage according to the different anatomical sites and age and gender. RESULTS: At all sites on B-mode, cartilage and tendon thicknesses showed positive or negative correlations with age (P < 0.0001). Side-to-side correlations were good (P < 0.0001 overall) and stronger for cartilage (r, 0.77-0.97) than for tendon thickness (r, 0.58-0.63). Agreement between the two sides for discrete data was very good to excellent (kappa, 0.77-1). Cartilage thickness at the various sites was significantly greater in boys than in girls (P ≤ 0.05). Tendon thickness was not significantly influenced by gender. Blood vessels were seen within the cartilage with differences across age groups. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides the first data on normal entheseal sonoanatomy and vascularisation in children. KEY POINTS: • The tendons of children exhibit the same fibrillar structure as adults • Tendon thickness at enthesis insertion in children is not influenced by gender • Cartilage thickness in children decreases with advancing age and varies with gender.