The opioid mortality epidemic in North America: do we understand the supply side dynamics of this unprecedented crisis?

While there has been extensive attention to the 'demand side' - or use and adverse consequences, including mortality - of the 'opioid crisis' presently unfolding across North America, few considerations have focused on the supply side. This paper examines the supply side dynamics of this unprecedented public health phenomenon. We provide evidence for several interrelated supply-side elements that have contributed to the present public health crisis. We observe that initially, persistently high levels of prescription opioid availability and use exposed large proportions of the North American population to opioids, resulting in correspondingly high levels of medical and non-medical use (e.g., involving diversion). While various intervention measures to control prescription opioid availability and use have been implemented in recent years, leading to eventual reductions in opioid dispensing levels, these occurred late in the crisis's evolution. Moreover, these supply reductions have not been met by corresponding reductions in opioid use or demand levels. These growing discrepancies between opioid demand and prescription-based sources have left major gaps in opioid supplies. In response to such supply gaps, highly potent and toxic illicit opioid products have rapidly proliferated across North America, and become a core driver of the dramatic spikes in opioid overdose fatality levels in recent years. These supply-related interrelations are corroborated by a corresponding increase in illicit opioid-related fatalities, which arose just as medical opioid supplies began to decrease in many jurisdictions. Improved analyses and understanding of the supply-side dynamics of the opioid crisis are urgently needed in order to inform future intervention and policy development. Meanwhile, the high mortality toll related to illicit, highly toxic opioid exposure requires sustained solutions, including supply-oriented measures (e.g., safer opioid distribution for at-risk users) towards improved public health protection.

Is the Gender Gap in Overdose Deaths (Still) Decreasing? An Examination of Opioid Deaths in Delaware, 2013-2017.

OBJECTIVE: Drug overdoses among men have historically outnumbered those among women by a large margin. Yet, U.S. research on the first wave of the opioid epidemic involving prescription opioids has found women to be at increased risk. The current study considers if the narrowing gender gap in overdose deaths, as observed during the first wave, has continued into the most recent third wave, dominated by synthetic opioid deaths. This requires consideration of interactions between gender, age, and type of drug implicated. METHOD: Drawing on 2013-2017 Delaware toxicology reports for a total of 890 overdose deaths involving opioids, we distinguished between four gender/age groups--women 15-44, women 45-64, men 15-44, and men 45-64--to calculate crude death rates, male-to-female death rate ratios, and younger-to-older death rate ratios by type of opioid. RESULTS: Opioid overdose death rates during the third wave increased among both men (+102%) and women (+46%), but the larger increase among men resulted in an increase in the male-to-female death rate ratio (from 1.9 to 2.6). This trend was driven by the growing contribution of fentanyl (from 16% to 76%) and heroin overdose deaths (from 27% to 50%) compared with other opioid overdose deaths, which disproportionately affected men and younger individuals. Higher male-to-female death rate ratios were observed among older, compared with younger, individuals. CONCLUSIONS: Overdose deaths seem to have returned to a historically familiar pattern of dominance by younger males. Our findings suggest the gender-age distribution in deaths to specific opioid types must be considered for effective intervention.

Adverse health effects of abuse-deterrent opioids: Evidence from the reformulation of OxyContin.

The United States is currently in the midst of the worst drug epidemic in its history, with nearly 64,000 overdose deaths in 2016. In response, pharmaceutical companies have begun introducing abuse-deterrent painkillers, pills with properties that make the drug more difficult to misuse. The first such painkiller, a reformulated version of OxyContin, was released in 2010. Previous research has found no net effect on opioid mortality, with users substituting from OxyContin toward heroin. This paper explores health effects of the reformulation beyond mortality. In particular, I show that heroin is substantially more likely to be injected than OxyContin, increasing exposure to blood-borne diseases. Exploiting variation across states in OxyContin misuse prior to the reformulation, I find relative increases in the spread of hepatitis B and C in states most likely to be affected by the reformulation. In aggregate, the estimates suggest that absent the reformulation, we would have observed approximately 76% fewer cases of hepatitis C and 53% fewer cases of hepatitis B from 2011 to 2015. I find some suggestive evidence that the reformulation also lead to increases in HIV and hepatitis A, although these findings are less robust. These findings have important implications for future policies addressing the opioid crisis.

Binge Drinking and Prescription Opioid Misuse in the U.S., 2012-2014.

INTRODUCTION: Prescription opioids were responsible for approximately 17,000 deaths in the U.S. in 2016. One in five prescription opioid deaths also involve alcohol. Drinkers who misuse prescription opioids (i.e., use without a prescription or use only for the experience or feeling it causes) are at a heightened risk of overdose. However, little is known about the relationship between drinking patterns and prescription opioid misuse. METHODS: Data were analyzed from 160,812 individuals (aged ≥12 years) who responded to questions about prescription opioid misuse and alcohol consumption in the 2012, 2013, or 2014 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (analyzed in 2017-2018). The prevalence of self-reported past-30-days prescription opioid misuse was assessed by sociodemographic characteristics, other substance use (i.e., cigarettes, marijuana), and drinking patterns. Multiple logistic regression analyses were used to calculate AORs. RESULTS: From 2012 to 2014, 1.6% (95% CI=1.5, 1.7) of all individuals aged ≥12 years (estimated 4.2 million) and 3.5% (95% CI=3.3, 3.8) of binge drinkers (estimated 2.2 million) reported prescription opioid misuse. Prescription opioid misuse was more common among binge drinkers than among nondrinkers (AOR=1.7, 95% CI=1.5, 1.9). Overall, the prevalence of prescription opioid misuse increased significantly with binge drinking frequency (p-value<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: More than half of the 4.2 million people who misused prescription opioids during 2012-2014 were binge drinkers, and binge drinkers had nearly twice the odds of misusing prescription opioids, compared with nondrinkers. Widespread use of evidence-based strategies for preventing binge drinking might reduce opioid misuse and overdoses involving alcohol.

Prevention of Prescription Opioid Misuse and Projected Overdose Deaths in the United States.

Importance: Deaths due to opioid overdose have tripled in the last decade. Efforts to curb this trend have focused on restricting the prescription opioid supply; however, the near-term effects of such efforts are unknown. Objective: To project effects of interventions to lower prescription opioid misuse on opioid overdose deaths from 2016 to 2025. Design, Setting, and Participants: This system dynamics (mathematical) model of the US opioid epidemic projected outcomes of simulated individuals who engage in nonmedical prescription or illicit opioid use from 2016 to 2025. The analysis was performed in 2018 by retrospectively calibrating the model from 2002 to 2015 data from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Interventions: Comparison of interventions that would lower the incidence of prescription opioid misuse from 2016 to 2025 based on historical trends (a 7.5% reduction per year) and 50% faster than historical trends (an 11.3% reduction per year), vs a circumstance in which the incidence of misuse remained constant after 2015. Main Outcomes and Measures: Opioid overdose deaths from prescription and illicit opioids from 2016 to 2025 under each intervention. Results: Under the status quo, the annual number of opioid overdose deaths is projected to increase from 33 100 in 2015 to 81 700 (95% uncertainty interval [UI], 63 600-101 700) in 2025 (a 147% increase from 2015). From 2016 to 2025, 700 400 (95% UI, 590 200-817 100) individuals in the United States are projected to die from opioid overdose, with 80% of the deaths attributable to illicit opioids. The number of individuals using illicit opioids is projected to increase by 61%-from 0.93 million (95% UI, 0.83-1.03 million) in 2015 to 1.50 million (95% UI, 0.98-2.22 million) by 2025. Across all interventions tested, further lowering the incidence of prescription opioid misuse from 2015 levels is projected to decrease overdose deaths by only 3.0% to 5.3%. Conclusions and Relevance: This study's findings suggest that interventions targeting prescription opioid misuse such as prescription monitoring programs may have a modest effect, at best, on the number of opioid overdose deaths in the near future. Additional policy interventions are urgently needed to change the course of the epidemic.

Gabapentin-related Deaths: Patterns of Abuse and Postmortem Levels.

Gabapentin, a GABA analogue, is a nonopioid prescribed for seizure control and neuralgic pain. Its abuse for recreational purposes has been increasing in recent years as the number of prescriptions also increases. In our series, we review 104 cases of decedents who tested positive for gabapentin in postmortem blood samples and an additional 53 nonfatal cases of motor vehicle drivers suspected of driving under the influence. In 47.1% of the fatality cases, gabapentin was directly involved in death. Most gabapentin fatalities had several other intoxicants present (opioids, over-the-counter medications, antianxiety, and antidepressant medications). In cases in which gabapentin was determined to be a cause of death, the blood concentrations ranged from 1.1 to 134.0 mg/L. Persons who died of a gabapentin-related drug death were prescribed the drug legitimately 91.4% of the time, with 84.2% of those also having a known prior history of abuse or misuse of prescription medications.

Overview of Prescription Opioid Deaths in the Oklahoma State Medicaid Population, 2012-2016.

BACKGROUND: Medicaid members are predisposed to unintentional prescription opioid overdose. However, little is known about their individual risk factors. OBJECTIVES: To describe demographic and clinical characteristics, medical utilization, opioid use, concurrent use of benzodiazepines, risk factors, and substances involved in death for Oklahoma's Medicaid members who died of unintentional prescription opioid poisoning. SUBJECTS: Decedents who were Medicaid eligible in Oklahoma during the year of death, had an opioid recorded in cause of death, and had ≥1 opioid prescription claim between January 1, 2011 and June 30, 2016 were cases. Controls were living Medicaid members and were matched 3:1 to cases through propensity score matching. MEASURES: Demographics, clinical characteristics, and medical/pharmacy utilization were examined in the 12 months before the index date. RESULTS: Of 639 members with fatal unintentional prescription opioid overdoses, 321 had ≥1 opioid prescription claim in the year before death; these were matched to 963 controls. Compared with controls, decedents had significantly greater proportions of nonopioid substance use disorders, opioid abuse/dependence, hepatitis, gastrointestinal bleeding, trauma not involving motor vehicle accidents, nonopioid poisonings, and mental illness disorders. Decedents had significantly higher daily morphine milligram equivalent doses (67.2±74.4 vs. 47.2±50.9 mg) and greater opioid/benzodiazepine overlap (70.4% vs. 35.9%). Benzodiazepines were involved in 29.3% of deaths. CONCLUSIONS: Several comorbidities indicative of opioid use disorder and greater exposure to opioids and concomitant benzodiazepines were associated with unintentional prescription opioid overdose fatalities. Prescribers and state agencies should be aware of these addressable patient-level factors among the Medicaid population. Targeting these factors with appropriate policy interventions and education may prevent future deaths.

Patterns of Potential Opioid Misuse and Subsequent Adverse Outcomes in Medicare, 2008 to 2012.

Background: Providers are increasingly being expected to examine their patients' opioid treatment histories before writing new opioid prescriptions. However, little evidence exists on how patterns of potential opioid misuse are associated with subsequent adverse outcomes nationally. Objective: To estimate how a range of patterns of potential opioid misuse relate to adverse outcomes during the subsequent year. Design: Observational study comparing outcomes for Medicare enrollees with potential opioid misuse patterns versus those for beneficiaries with no such patterns, adjusting for patient characteristics. Setting: Medicare, 2008 to 2012. Patients: A 5% sample of beneficiaries who had an opioid prescription without a cancer diagnosis. Measurements: Several measures for opioid misuse were defined on the basis of drug quantity, overlapping prescriptions, use of multiple prescribers or pharmacies, and use of out-of-state prescribers or pharmacies. The primary outcome was a diagnosis of opioid overdose in the year after a 6-month index period. Secondary outcomes included subsequent opioid-related or overall mortality. Results: Overall, 0.6% to 8.5% of beneficiaries fulfilled a misuse measure. Subsequent opioid overdose was positively associated with successively greater numbers of prescribers or pharmacies or higher opioid quantities during the index period. For example, patients who obtained opioids from 2, 3, or 4 prescribers were increasingly more likely to have an opioid overdose (adjusted absolute risk per 1000 beneficiary-years [aAR], 3.5 [95% CI, 3.3 to 3.7]; 4.8 [CI, 4.5 to 5.2]; or 6.4 [CI, 5.8 to 6.9], respectively) than those with a single prescriber (aAR, 1.9 [CI, 1.8 to 2.0]). Subsequent overdose risk increased meaningfully with any deviation in the single prescriber-single pharmacy opioid use pattern. All misuse measures examined had a positive association with subsequent opioid overdose and death. Limitation: Risk estimates provide measures of association and may not generalize to non-Medicare populations. Conclusion: To fully assess patients' opioid overdose risk, clinicians should examine a wide range of misuse patterns. Primary Funding Source: National Institutes of Health.

Teens, Drugs, & Vegas: Toxicological surveillance of illicit prescription and illegal drug abuse in adolescents (12-17 years) using post-mortem data in Clark County, Nevada from 2005 to 2015.

Illegal drug abuse, particularly prescription drug abuse is a growing problem in the United States. Research on adolescent drug abuse is based on national self-reported data. Using local coroner data, quantitative prevalence of illegal substance toxicology and trends can be assessed to aid directed outreach and community-based prevention initiatives. Retrospective analysis was conducted on all cases aged 12-17 years referred to the Office of the Medical Examiner, Clark County from 2005 to 2015 (n = 526). The prevalence of illegal opioid use in this population was 13.3%. The most commonly used drug was tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in 29.7%. Illegal-prescription opioids and benzodiazepines were used approximately 1.7 times as much as all other illegal-drugs, excluding THC combined. The largest proportion of illicit prescription drug users were accidental death victims (p = 0.02, OR = 2.02). Drug trends by youth are ever evolving and current specific data is necessary to target prevention initiatives in local communities.

Trends in intentional abuse or misuse of benzodiazepines and opioid analgesics and the associated mortality reported to poison centers across the United States from 2000 to 2014.

CONTEXT: Prior works demonstrates an increased risk of death when opioid analgesics and benzodiazepines are used concomitantly to gain a high. Using poison center data, we described trends in abuse or misuse of benzodiazepines and opioid analgesics. We quantified mortality risk associated with abuse or misuse of benzodiazepines, opioid analgesics and the combination of opioid analgesics and benzodiazepines. METHODS: This was a retrospective chart review of data from the National Poison Data System which collects information from 55 poison centers located across the United States. We identified reported cases of "intentional abuse or misuse" of benzodiazepine and/or opioid analgesic exposures. Poisson regression was used to compare the number of cases from each year between 2001 and 2014 to the year 2000. Logistic regression was used to determine whether cases exposed to both benzodiazepines and opioids had greater odds of death relative to cases exposed to opioid analgesics alone. RESULTS: From 2000 to 2014, there were 125,485 benzodiazepine exposures and 84,627 opioid exposures among "intentional abuse or misuse" cases. Of the benzodiazepine exposures, 17.3% (n = 21,660) also involved an opioid. In 2010, exposures involving both opioids and benzodiazepines were 4.26-fold (95% CI: 3.87-4.70; p < .001) higher than in 2000. The risk of death was 1.55 (95% CI: 1.01-2.37; p = .04) times greater among those who used both an opioid and a benzodiazepine compared to opioids alone. This association held after adjusting for gender and age. CONCLUSION: Intentional abuse or misuse of benzodiazepines and opioids in combination increased significantly from 2000 to 2014. Benzodiazepine abuse or misuse far exceeded cases of opioid abuse or misuse. Death was greater with co-abuse or misuse of benzodiazepines and opioids. Population-level campaigns to inform the public about the risk of death with co-abuse or misuse of benzodiazepines and opioids are urgently needed to address this overdose epidemic.

Comparative Rates of Mortality and Serious Adverse Effects Among Commonly Prescribed Opioid Analgesics.

INTRODUCTION: The epidemic of prescription opioid overdose and mortality parallels the dispensing rates of prescription opioids, and the availability of increasingly potent opioid analgesics. OBJECTIVE: The common assumption that more potent opioid analgesics are associated with higher rates of adverse outcomes has not been adequately substantiated. We compared the rate of serious adverse events among commonly prescribed opioid analgesics of varying potency. METHODS: Serious adverse events (SAEs; defined as death, major medical effect, or hospitalization) resulting from exposure to tablets containing seven opioid analgesics (oxycodone, hydrocodone, morphine, hydromorphone, oxymorphone, tapentadol, and tramadol) captured by the Researched Abuse, Diversion and Addiction-Related Surveillance (RADARS®) System Poison Center Program were evaluated from 2010 through 2016. Rates of SAEs were adjusted for availability through outpatient dispensing data and regressed on morphine milligram equivalents (MME). RESULTS: There were 19,480 cases of SAE during the 7-year study period. Hydrocodone and oxycodone contributed to 77% of SAE cases. Comparing rates of outcome by relative potency, a hierarchy was observed with hydromorphone (8.02 SAEs/100 kg) and tapentadol (0.27 SAE/100 kg) as the highest and lowest rates, reflecting a 30-fold difference among individual opioid products. SAE rate and potency were related linearly-SAEs increased 2.04 per 100 kg drug dispensed for each 1-unit rise in MME (p = 0.004). Linear regression of SAE/100 kg drug dispensed and drug potency identified that MME comprised 96% of the variation observed. In contrast, potency did not explain variation seen using other study denominators (prescriptions dispensed, dosage units dispensed, and the number of individuals filling a prescription). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: Potency of a prescription opioid analgesic demonstrates a significant, highly positive linear relationship with exposures resulting in SAEs per 100 kg drug dispensed reported to poison centers. Potency should be carefully considered from both individual provider and public health perspectives.

The Opioid Crisis: a Comprehensive Overview.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The opioid crisis most likely is the most profound public health crisis our nation has faced. In 2015 alone, 52,000 people died of drug overdoses, with over 30,000 of those people dying from opioid drugs. A recent community forum led by the Cleveland Clinic contrasted this yearly death rate with the loss of 58,000 American lives in 4 years of the Vietnam War. The present review describes the origins of this opioid epidemic and provides context for our present circumstances. RECENT FINDINGS: Alarmingly, the overwhelming majority of opioid abusers begin their addiction with prescription medications, primarily for chronic pain. Chronic postoperative pain, which occurs in 10-50% of surgical patients, is a major concern in many types of surgery. Nationwide, the medical community has made it a priority to ensure that postsurgical analgesia is sufficient to control pain without increasing non-medically appropriate opioid use. The opioid epidemic remains a significant pressing issue and will not resolve easily. Numerous factors, including the inappropriate prescription of opioids, lack of understanding of the potential adverse effects of long-term therapy, opioid misuse, abuse, and dependence, have contributed to the current crisis.

"The future" of pain treatment?

Some physicians, depending on the situation, are avoiding opioids to every reasonable degree, doing their part to keep patients off the drugs that killed more than 42,000 people in the United States in 2016. Fort Worth anesthesiologist Aaron Shiraz, MD, and his group, Trinity Medical Associates, are taking it to a rarely seen extreme.

Opioids, Part 1: Health Insurers Pushed To Take Steps To Curb the Epidemic.

Blame for the epidemic has focused on drugmakers, drug wholesalers, and physicians who prescribed opioids too liberally. This fall, fingers pointed at health insurers. Investigative reporting showed that coverage policies that restricted access to less addictive medications might have helped fueled the epidemic.

Mortality from Suicide, Chronic Liver Disease, and Drug Poisonings among Middle-Aged U.S. White Men and Women, 1980-2013.

Recent increases in all-cause mortality rates among the middle-aged U.S. white population have been explained in terms of elevated levels of midlife distress. This brief report provides evidence against this explanation for recent mortality trends among U.S. white men and women. Official mortality rates for U.S. white men and women aged 45-54 from suicide, chronic liver disease, drug poisonings, and other "extrinsic" causes of death (i.e., causes external to the body) between 1980 and 2013 are examined. Results suggest that recent increases in extrinsic mortality among the middle-aged U.S. white population are overwhelmingly driven by rapid increases in drug-related mortality. The contributions of chronic liver disease and suicide to U.S. white men's and women's mortality levels have been fairly stable for the past 30 years. Further, large gender differences in extrinsic mortality trends are observed. These two findings are inconsistent with the explanation that distress among the middle-aged U.S. white population is a common cause driving trends in U.S. white mortality.

Comparison of abuse, suspected suicidal intent, and fatalities related to the 7-day buprenorphine transdermal patch versus other opioid analgesics in the National Poison Data System.

OBJECTIVE: Prescription opioid related abuse, suicide and death are significant public health problems. This study compares rates of poison center calls categorized as intentional abuse, suspected suicidal intent or fatality for the 7-day buprenorphine transdermal system/patch (BTDS) with other extended-release and long-acting (ER/LA) opioids indicated for chronic pain. METHODS: Retrospective 24-month cohort study using National Poison Data System data from July 2012 through June 2014. BTDS was introduced in the United States in January 2011. Numbers and rates of calls of intentional abuse, suspected suicidal intent and fatalities were evaluated for BTDS, ER morphine, ER oxycodone, fentanyl patch, ER oxymorphone and methadone tablets/capsules, using prescription adjustment to account for community availability. Rate ratios (RR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were calculated. RESULTS: Absolute numbers and prescription-adjusted rates of intentional abuse and suspected suicidal intent with BTDS were significantly lower (p < .0001) than for all other ER/LA opioid analgesics examined. No fatalities associated with BTDS exposure were reported. CONCLUSION: This post-marketing evaluation of BTDS indicates infrequent poison center calls for intentional abuse and suspected suicidal intent events, suggesting lower rates of these risks with BTDS compared to other ER/LA opioids.

Internações hospitalares e mortalidade por intoxicação medicamentosa em São Paulo / Hospital admissions and mortality due to medicine poisoning in São Paulo

Introdução: Os medicamentos são desenvolvidos com o intuito de beneficiar quem os utiliza, atendendo a finalidades profiláticas, curativas, paliativas ou diagnósticas. No entanto, apesar de sua importância para a saúde, podem ser potenciais causadores de danos e óbitos. No Brasil, há uma carência de estudos sobre intoxicação medicamentosa baseados em dados oficiais. Objetivos: O estudo teve por objetivo descrever os óbitos por intoxicação com medicamentos ocorridos no Estado de São Paulo e internações por intoxicação com medicamentos ocorridos no município de São Paulo e investigar fatores que possam estar associados aos agravos. Métodos: A série temporal de mortalidade por intoxicação medicamentosa ajustada foi construída a partir de dados levantados do SIM-DATASUS para o período de 1996 a 2012. Foi verificada a contribuição das intoxicações acidentais e suicídios na mortalidade por intoxicação com medicamentos. Os casos de internação por intoxicação com medicamentos foram obtidos do SIH-DATASUS para o município de São Paulo para o período de 2004 a 2006, subsidiando a análise descritiva (idade, gênero, motivo de alta e tempo de internação, intencionalidade e medicamentos envolvidos). Os coeficientes de internação foram calculados segundo faixa etária e gênero para os anos de estudo. Resultados: A série temporal mostra a tendência crescente de mortalidade ajustada a partir de 2005, que se acentua a partir de 2009 (1,9 óbitos por 1.000.000 de habitantes em 2005; 2,7 óbitos por 1.000.000 em 2009; 6,7 óbitos por 1.000.000 de habitantes em 2012). A mortalidade por intoxicação intencional e a mortalidade com intenção não determinada também mostraram tendência crescente, o que sugere que são os componentes responsáveis pelo aumento da mortalidade por intoxicação medicamentosa. No estudo das internações, o tempo total para os casos estudados foi de 14.852 dias e o tempo médio foi de 4,4 dias. A idade média das pessoas internadas foi de 33,5 anos. Foi observada a predominância de internações para o gênero feminino (60,5por cento). Os principais medicamentos identificados nas intoxicações estudadas foram os benzodiazepínicos (T42.4), que corresponderam a 7,5por cento das internações e antibióticos sistêmicos não especificados (T36.9), que corresponderam a 7por cento das internações. Os maiores coeficientes de internação foram observados para a faixa etária dos mais idosos (idade igual ou superior a 70 anos) e para o gênero feminino em todos os anos de estudo. Conclusão: Foi observada tendência crescente para a mortalidade por intoxicação medicamentosa no estado de São Paulo. As estatísticas de mortalidade são importante fonte de dados para conhecer o perfil epidemiológico de uma área, analisar tendências, indicar prioridades, avaliar programas, entre outras finalidades. Mulheres e idosos foram as categorias que apresentaram maiores coeficientes de internação por intoxicação medicamentosa, o que aponta para uma possível associação entre maior consumo e maior risco de intoxicação. Nas internações, a observação da relevância dos benzodiazepínicos e de grupos de medicamentos sob controle de venda indica que mesmo medicamentos prescritos podem representar risco. O conhecimento sobre os agravos estudados, que são preveníveis e se mostraram relevantes como problema crescente de saúde pública, pode contribuir para o planejamento de intervenções adequadas para seu controle

Introduction: Medicines are prescribed in order to benefit those who use them, given their prophylactic, curative, palliative or diagnostic purposes. However, despite its importance to health, they can cause potential harm and deaths. In Brazil, there is a lack of studies on medicine poisoning based on official data. Objectives: This study aimed to assess the trend for deaths due to medicine poisoning in population of São Paulo State and to characterize hospital admissions in São Paulo City. Methods: Time series of mortality due to medicine poisoning were built using official data for the period 1996 to 2012. Participation of accidental poisonings and suicides in mortality due to medicine poisoning was assessed. Medicine poisoning were selected by hospital admission data, that were obtained from the official system of information on hospitalization of the city of São Paulo for the period 2004-2006, supporting descriptive analysis (age, gender, cause of delivery and length of hospitalization, intention and medicine involved). Results: Time series analysis showed an increase of mortality from 2005, which was steeper after 2009 (1.9 deaths per 1,000,000 in 2005; 2.7 deaths per 1,000,000 in 2009; 6.7 deaths per 1,000,000 in 2012). Growth in the period seems to be attributed to intentional poisoning and cases without identification of intent. Total length of hospitalization was 14,852 days and average time was 4.4 days. Average age of people who had been hospitalized was 33.5 years. A higher proportion of females (60.5 per cent ) was observed among admissions. Main medicines involved were benzodiazepines (T42.4), corresponding to 7.5 per cent of admissions and unspecified systemic antibiotics (T36.9), corresponding to 7 per cent of admissions. Hospitalization rates due to medicine poisoning were calculated according to age and gender for the years of study and they ranked higher for females in all years studied. The highest hospitalization rates were observed for the older people (age 70 years and more). Conclusion: An increasing trend for mortality due to medicine poisoning in state of São Paulo was observed. Mortality statistics are an important source of data to draft the epidemiological profile of an area and they are used to analyze trends, indicate priorities, evaluate programs, among other purposes. Women and older people were the categories with highest hospital admission coefficients due to medicine poisoning, what could depict an association between increased medicine consumption and increased risk of medicine poisoning. In hospital admissions, observation of relevance of benzodiazepines and of groups of drugs under sales control could depict that even prescription medicines can pose a risk. Knowledge about hospital admissions and mortality due to medicine poisoning, that are preventable and showed to be relevant as a growing public health problem, can contribute to propose appropriate interventions for their control

Prescription drug abuse - A timely update.

BACKGROUND: Prescription drug abuse is a rising problem in Australia and pharmaceutical drugs have been the most frequent contributors to overdose deaths in Victoria in recent years. OBJECTIVE: The objectives of this article are to examine the main prescription drugs contributing to overdose deaths and to consider how doctors may help in reducing this problem. DISCUSSION: Data from the Coroners Court of Victoria list the main drugs that contributed to drug-related deaths in 2009-15. Analysis of the data reveals that pharmaceutical drugs contributed to 80% of overdose deaths; benzodiazepines and opioids were the main drug groups involved. Strategies for reducing and managing prescription drug abuse in primary care settings are outlined in this article, including references to published evidence-based clinical guidelines from The Royal Australian College of General Practitioners (RACGP). The safety profile of buprenorphine/ naloxone over methadone is noted and raised as a consideration for clinicians when assessing a patient for opioid replacement therapy.