ABSTRACT
The research on natural snake venom metalloendopeptidase inhibitors (SVMPIs) began in the 18th century with the pioneering work of Fontana on the resistance that vipers exhibited to their own venom. During the past 40 years, SVMPIs have been isolated mainly from the sera of resistant animals, and characterized to different extents. They are acidic oligomeric glycoproteins that remain biologically active over a wide range of pH and temperature values. Based on primary structure determination, mammalian plasmatic SVMPIs are classified as members of the immunoglobulin (Ig) supergene protein family, while the one isolated from muscle belongs to the ficolin/opsonin P35 family. On the other hand, SVMPIs from snake plasma have been placed in the cystatin superfamily. These natural antitoxins constitute the first line of defense against snake venoms, inhibiting the catalytic activities of snake venom metalloendopeptidases through the establishment of high-affinity, non-covalent interactions. This review presents a historical account of the field of natural resistance, summarizing its main discoveries and current challenges, which are mostly related to the limitations that preclude three-dimensional structural determinations of these inhibitors using "gold-standard" methods; perspectives on how to circumvent such limitations are presented. Potential applications of these SVMPIs in medicine are also highlighted.
Subject(s)
Antidotes/therapeutic use , Metalloendopeptidases/antagonists & inhibitors , Protease Inhibitors/therapeutic use , Reptilian Proteins/antagonists & inhibitors , Snake Bites/drug therapy , Snake Venoms/antagonists & inhibitors , Animals , Antidotes/history , History, 18th Century , History, 19th Century , History, 20th Century , History, 21st Century , Humans , Metalloendopeptidases/chemistry , Metalloendopeptidases/history , Metalloendopeptidases/metabolism , Protease Inhibitors/history , Protein Conformation , Reptilian Proteins/chemistry , Reptilian Proteins/history , Reptilian Proteins/metabolism , Snake Bites/enzymology , Snake Bites/history , Snake Venoms/chemistry , Snake Venoms/enzymology , Snake Venoms/history , Structure-Activity RelationshipABSTRACT
Infection with hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a major medical problem with over 170 million people infected worldwide. Substantial morbidity and mortality are associated with hepatic manifestations (cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma), which develop with increasing frequency in people infected with HCV for more than 20 years. Less well known is the burden of HCV disease associated with extrahepatic manifestations (diabetes, B-cell proliferative disorders, depression, cognitive disorders, arthritis and Sjögren's syndrome). For patients infected with genotype 1 HCV, treatment with polyethylene glycol decorated interferon (peginterferon) α and ribavirin (PR) is associated with a low (40-50%) success rate, substantial treatment-limiting side effects and a long (48-week) duration of treatment. In the past 15 years, major scientific advances have enabled the development of new classes of HCV therapy, the direct-acting antiviral agents, also known as specifically targeted antiviral therapy for hepatitis C (STAT-C). In combination with PR, the HCV NS3-4A protease inhibitor telaprevir has recently been approved for treatment of genotype 1 chronic HCV in the United States, Canada, European Union and Japan. Compared with PR, telaprevir combination therapy offers significantly improved viral cure rates and the possibility of shortened treatment duration for diverse patient populations. Developers of innovative drugs have to blaze a new path with few validated sign posts to guide the way. Indeed, telaprevir's development was once put on hold because of its performance in a standard IC(50) assay. Data from new hypotheses and novel experiments were required to justify further investment and reduce risk that the drug might fail in the clinic. In addition, the poor drug-like properties of telaprevir were a formidable hurdle, which the manufacturing and formulation teams had to overcome to make the drug. Finally, novel clinical trial designs were developed to improve efficacy and shorten treatment in parallel instead of sequentially. Lessons learned from the development of telaprevir suggest that makers of innovative medicines cannot rely solely on traditional drug discovery metrics, but must develop innovative, scientifically guided pathways for success.
Subject(s)
Drug Discovery , Hepacivirus/genetics , Hepatitis C, Chronic/drug therapy , Oligopeptides/chemistry , Protease Inhibitors/chemistry , Viral Nonstructural Proteins/antagonists & inhibitors , Animals , Clinical Trials as Topic , Genotype , Hepacivirus/drug effects , History, 20th Century , History, 21st Century , Humans , Interferon-alpha/adverse effects , Interferon-alpha/therapeutic use , Mice , Oligopeptides/history , Oligopeptides/therapeutic use , Polyethylene Glycols/adverse effects , Polyethylene Glycols/therapeutic use , Protease Inhibitors/history , Protease Inhibitors/therapeutic use , Recombinant Proteins/adverse effects , Recombinant Proteins/therapeutic use , Ribavirin/adverse effects , Ribavirin/therapeutic useABSTRACT
This column is the first in a series on HIV/AIDS antiretroviral drugs. This first review summarizes the history of HIV/AIDS and the development of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) and highlights why it is important for non-HIV specialists to know about these drugs. There are four broad classes of HIV medications used in varying combinations in HAART: the protease inhibitors, nucleoside analogue reverse transcriptase inhibitors, the non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, and cell membrane fusion inhibitors. This paper reviews the mechanism of action, side effects, toxicities, and drug interactions of the protease inhibitors.
