A novel group of spindle cell tumors defined by S100 and CD34 co-expression shows recurrent fusions involving RAF1, BRAF, and NTRK1/2 genes.

Tumors characterized by co-expression of S100 and CD34, in the absence of SOX10, remain difficult to classify. Triggered by a few index cases with monomorphic cytomorphology and distinctive stromal and perivascular hyalinization, immunopositivity for S100 and CD34, and RAF1 and NTRK1 fusions, the authors undertook a systematic review of tumors with similar features. Most of the cases selected were previously diagnosed as low-grade malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors, while others were deemed unclassified. The tumors were studied with targeted RNA sequencing and/or FISH. A total of 25 cases (15 adults and 10 children) with kinase fusions were identified, including 8 cases involving RAF1, 2 BRAF, 14 NTRK1, and 1 NTRK2 gene rearrangements. Most tumors showed a monomorphic spindle cell proliferation with stromal and perivascular keloidal collagen, in a patternless architecture, with only occasional scattered pleomorphic or multinucleated cells. Most cases showed low cellularity, a low mitotic count, and absence of necrosis. Although a subset showed overlap with lipofibromatosis-like neural tumors, the study group showed distinctive hyalinization and overt malignant features, such as highly cellular fascicular growth and primitive appearance. All tumors showed co-expression of S100 and CD34, ranging from focal to diffuse. SOX10 was negative in all cases. NTRK1 immunohistochemistry showed high levels of expression in all tumors with NTRK1 gene rearrangements. H3K27me3 expression performed in a subset of cases was retained. These findings together with the recurrent gene fusions in RAF1, BRAF, and NTRK1/2 kinases suggest a distinct molecular tumor subtype with consistent S100 and CD34 immunoreactivity.

Preferential association of a functional variant in complement receptor 2 with antibodies to double-stranded DNA.

OBJECTIVES: Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE; OMIM 152700) is characterised by the production of antibodies to nuclear antigens. We previously identified variants in complement receptor 2 (CR2/CD21) that were associated with decreased risk of SLE. This study aimed to identify the causal variant for this association. METHODS: Genotyped and imputed genetic variants spanning CR2 were assessed for association with SLE in 15 750 case-control subjects from four ancestral groups. Allele-specific functional effects of associated variants were determined using quantitative real-time PCR, quantitative flow cytometry, electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP)-PCR. RESULTS: The strongest association signal was detected at rs1876453 in intron 1 of CR2 (pmeta=4.2×10(-4), OR 0.85), specifically when subjects were stratified based on the presence of dsDNA autoantibodies (case-control pmeta=7.6×10(-7), OR 0.71; case-only pmeta=1.9×10(-4), OR 0.75). Although allele-specific effects on B cell CR2 mRNA or protein levels were not identified, levels of complement receptor 1 (CR1/CD35) mRNA and protein were significantly higher on B cells of subjects harbouring the minor allele (p=0.0248 and p=0.0006, respectively). The minor allele altered the formation of several DNA protein complexes by EMSA, including one containing CCCTC-binding factor (CTCF), an effect that was confirmed by ChIP-PCR. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that rs1876453 in CR2 has long-range effects on gene regulation that decrease susceptibility to lupus. Since the minor allele at rs1876453 is preferentially associated with reduced risk of the highly specific dsDNA autoantibodies that are present in preclinical, active and severe lupus, understanding its mechanisms will have important therapeutic implications.

TSP1-producing B cells show immune regulatory property and suppress allergy-related mucosal inflammation.

Specific immunotherapy (SIT) is the only specific remedy for the treatment of allergic diseases currently. B cells are important immune cells in the immunity. The role of B cells in immune regulatory activities has not been fully understood yet. This study aims to elucidate the role of the thrombospondin (TSP)1-producing B cells in the immune regulatory role of SIT. The results showed that after SIT, the frequency of CD35(+) B cells was increased in the intestine of mice with food allergy. The CD35(+) B cells expressed TSP1 after exposure to specific antigens. Co-culture with the TSP1-producing CD35(+) B cells decreased the levels of CD80/CD86 in dendritic cells; the cells convert naïve CD4(+) T cells to regulatory T cells to inhibit allergic inflammation in the intestine.

Expression of complement regulatory proteins CD55, CD59, CD35, and CD46 in rheumatoid arthritis.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease associated with polyarticular inflammatory synovitis affecting mainly peripheral joints. It affects approximately 1% of the world population, being two to three times more prevalent in women. Rheumatoid arthritis has a complex and multifactorial pathogenesis. The synovium of the affected joints is infiltrated by T and B lymphocytes, macrophages, and granulocytes. The rheumatoid synovium has proliferative characteristics, forming the pannus, which invades cartilage and bone, leading to normal architecture destruction and function loss. The decreased expression of complement regulatory proteins (CRP) seems to play an important role in RA activity, and is associated with worsening of the clinical symptoms. In several models of autoimmune diseases, the overactivation of the complement system (CS) is the cause of disease exacerbation. This article aimed at reviewing the main aspects related to CS regulation in RA in order to provide a better understanding of the potential role of this system in the pathophysiology and activity of the disease.

The structure, genetic polymorphisms, expression and biological functions of complement receptor type 1 (CR1/CD35).

The complement system is comprised of soluble and cell surface associated proteins that recognize exogenous, altered, or potentially harmful endogenous ligands. In recent years, the complement system--particularly component C3 and its receptors--have been demonstrated to be a key link between innate and adaptive immunity. Complement receptor type 1 (CR1), the receptor for C3b/C4b complement peptides, has emerged as a molecule of immense interest in gaining insight to the susceptibility, pathophysiology, diagnosis, prognosis and therapy of such diseases. In this review, we wish to briefly bring forth the structure, genetic polymorphisms, expression and biological functions of CR1.

Expression levels of CD47, CD35, CD55, and CD59 on red blood cells and signal-regulatory protein-alpha,beta on monocytes from patients with warm autoimmune hemolytic anemia.

BACKGROUND: Animal models have shown that CD47-deficient mice develop severe autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA) because the binding of red blood cell (RBC) CD47 to signal-regulatory protein (SIRP-alpha) on macrophages contributes to the inhibition of phagocytosis. In contrast, complement-inhibitory proteins such as CD35, CD55, and CD59 may protect RBCs against the lysis by complement. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: With the use of flow cytometric analyses, the expression of CD47, CD35, CD55, and CD59 on RBCs and of SIRP-alpha,beta on peripheral monocytes of 36 patients with warm AIHA (wAIHA; 23 with active wAIHA, 13 with wAIHA in remission) and 20 healthy subjects was evaluated. RESULTS: The mean fluorescence intensities (MFIs) of the expression of CD47, CD35, CD55, and SIRP-alpha,beta of active wAIHA patients, wAIHA in remission, and healthy subjects were not statistically different. Patients with active wAIHA showed significantly lower CD59 expression on RBCs than healthy individuals (MFI, 512.5 +/- 59.6 vs. 553.7 +/- 36.6; p = 0.009), while the CD59 expression in patients with wAIHA in remission was not significantly different from that of healthy controls (MFI, 538.4 +/- 48.3 vs. 553.7 +/- 36.6; p > 0.05). The expression of CD59 on RBCs of 3 patients who died from the wAIHA was lower than that seen on RBCs of healthy controls (MFI, 433.6 +/- 69.6 vs. 553.74 +/- 36.6; p = 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: Our data show that the expression of CD47 on RBCs and SIRP-alpha,beta on monocytes of patients with wAIHA is not different from that seen in healthy individuals. In addition, we detected that patients with active wAIHA present low expression of CD59 and normal expression of CD35 and CD55 on their RBCs. Complement-regulatory proteins may play an important role in protecting RBC destruction through the activation of complement.

Reduced erythrocyte CR1 levels in patients with pulmonary tuberculosis is an acquired phenomenon.

Complement receptor 1 expressed on erythrocytes is involved in the transport of circulating immune complexes from the circulation to the mononuclear phagocyte system for safe disposal. The prevalence of complement receptor 1 genotypes and the association between circulating immune complexes and expression of complement receptor 1 on erythrocytes in pulmonary tuberculosis are not fully understood. Observations from this study showed increased occurrence of HH genotype in patients with pulmonary tuberculosis. Patients with tuberculosis had decreased erythrocyte complement receptor 1 and increased immune complex levels compared to healthy controls which also correlated with increasing severity of the disease. In addition, the expression of complement receptor 1 on erythrocytes correlated inversely with the levels of circulating immune complexes. This study suggests that the presence of HH genotype is high in pulmonary tuberculosis patients and the reduced complement receptor 1 in patients may be an acquired phenomenon related to disease pathogenesis.

Regulated complement deposition on the surface of human endothelial cells: effect of tobacco smoke and shear stress.

Cigarette smoke and hemodynamic stress both contribute to vascular inflammation and associated atherosclerosis. We recently demonstrated direct activation of complement components C4 and C3 on human endothelial cells (EC). The present study was designed to explore complement activation on bone marrow microvascular endothelial cells (BMEC) and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) in response to endothelial cell injury by tobacco smoke extract, shear stress, or other known inflammatory and atherogenic mediators, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and INF-gamma. Following treatment, confluent EC monolayers were exposed to plasma (60 min, 37 degrees C), and cell surface deposition of stable complement derivatives C4d, iC3b and SC5b-9 was measured in situ using an ELISA approach. Consistent with previous results, moderate levels of C4d, iC3b and SC5b-9 deposition were observed on native EC monolayers exposed to human plasma. Tobacco smoke and shear stress enhanced EC C4d deposition. In contrast, LPS and INF-gamma failed to affect EC mediated complement activation, despite evidence of EC activation illustrated by ICAM-1 expression. The combination of tobacco smoke and shear stress nearly doubled EC C4d expression. No increases in iC3b or SC5b-9 were noted, suggesting inhibition of classical and alternative pathway C3 convertase assembly or activity. Indeed, concomitantly increased surface expression of complement regulatory proteins CD35 (CR1) and CD55 was observed following EC exposure to tobacco smoke and shear stress. These results suggest that a balance between complement activation and regulation exists at the EC surface, and may impact vascular injury leading to thrombosis, arteriosclerosis, and atherogenesis.

[Cloning, expression and identification of functional fragment rC3B of human complement C3 in E. Coli].

This study was purposed to verify the binding part of human complement C3 to complement receptor III (CRIII) in monocytes, the peptide rC3B, including the binding-site, was expressed, purified and identified. rC3B, the binding part of human complement C3 to CRIII, was selected by computer-aided modeling and summarizing researches published. Then, rC3B gene fragment was amplified by PCR, and cloned into prokaryotic vector pQE30a. The fusion protein rC3B was expressed in E.coli M15 and purified by Ni(2+)-chelating affinity chromatography. The activity of rC3B was identified by Western blot and adherence assay with monocytes. The results showed that rC3B fragment was obtained, and a prokaryotic expression vector pQE30-rC3B was constructed. rC3B was efficiently expressed and purified. In Western blot, the target protein showed the activity of binding with C3 antibody, while the purified protein showed the activity of adherence with monocytes. It is concluded that the recombinant C3B was obtained and identified, and this study lay the basis for the further functional analysis of C3.

[Erythrocyte immunologic function effects of Patrinia scabra extracts by macroporous adsorptive resins on mice burdened transplanted tumor].

OBJECTIVE: To research the erythrocyte immunoregulation effects of Patrinia scabra extracts by macroporous adsorptive resins on mice burdened transplanted tumor. METHODS: Extracts of Patrinia scabra Bunge were separated by macroporous adsorptive resins, ingredients were analysised. Mice burdened transplanted tumor were given extracted drugs. Life prolongation rate was observed, erythrocyte immunologic function and the CD35, CD44s contents of red blood cell were evaluated. RESULTS: Polysaccharide and saponin accounted for 8.4% and 48.4%. Extracts could porolong life expectancy of mice, improve erythrocyte immunolgic function and increase the CD35 and CD44s contents of red blood cell. CONCLUSION: Extracts of Patrinia scabra Bunge by macroporous adsorptive resins have erythrocyte immunoregulation effects on mice burdened transplanted tumor.

CR1 on erythrocytes of Brazilian systemic lupus erythematosus patients: the influence of disease activity on expression and ability of this receptor to bind immune complexes opsonized with complement from normal human serum.

Hypocomplementaemia and low expression of CR1 on erythrocytes (E) of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) are associated with defective clearance of circulating immune complexes (IC) and so they may have pathogenic significance. Here, we investigated whether the reduced CR1/E in SLE patients per se might affect the binding of IC to CR1/E. First, we analysed the expression of CR1 on E of active (n=30) and inactive (n=34) SLE patients using a FITC-conjugated mouse anti-CR1 monoclonal antibody E11 and flow cytometry. Both groups of patients had a significantly reduced CR1/E expression compared with healthy controls (n=40). It was also observed that the number of E bearing CR1 was reduced in both groups of SLE patients studied. Second, we determined the functional activity of CR1/E by measuring the binding to E of FITC-bovine serum albumin (BSA)/rabbit anti-BSA complexes, formed at equivalence, which were opsonized with complement from normal human serum (NHS). On the other hand, we did not find differences between the patient and control groups in the ability of E to bind IC/NHS. There was also a positive correlation between the CR1/E expression and the number of E bearing CR1 in control and inactive SLE groups, which was not observed in the group of active SLE patients. Considering the involvement of low levels of complement and CR1/E expression on complex processing, in this in vitro model the results show that an effective coating of the complexes with complement is sufficient to bind them preferentially to CR1 over normal levels of receptor expression.

Low erythrocyte complement receptor type 1 (CR1, CD35) expression in preeclamptic gestations.

PROBLEM: Erythrocyte complement receptor type 1 (E-CR1) is the main immune complex clearance mechanism in humans. Decreased E-CR1 expression is noted in certain inflammatory disorders. Recent evidence implicates inflammation in the pathogenesis of preeclampsia. We investigated whether E-CR1 is decreased in preeclampsia. METHOD OF STUDY: E-CR1 protein expression was quantified by radioimmunoassay. Plasma concentration of soluble CR1 was quantified using a specific enzyme linked immunosorbent assay. Quantitative genotypes were evaluated by HindIII restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis. RESULTS: E-CR1 expression was reduced in patients with preeclampsia. Lack of neoantigen expression (indicative of enzymatic cleavage of CR1) or elevated plasma-soluble CR1 was evidence against an acquired loss of E-CR1. Genotype analysis revealed a higher frequency of a CR1 allele associated with low E-CR1 expression in preeclampsia when compared with normal pregnant controls. CONCLUSIONS: E-CR1 expression is decreased in preeclamptic patients and levels correlate with severity of disease. This condition may have a genetic basis in some patients.

Decay-accelerating factor (CD55) is expressed by neurons in response to chronic but not acute autoimmune central nervous system inflammation associated with complement activation.

There is compelling evidence that a unique innate immune response in the CNS plays a critical role in host defense and clearance of toxic cell debris. Although complement has been implicated in neuronal impairment, axonal loss, and demyelination, some preliminary evidence suggests that the initial insult consequently activates surrounding cells to signal neuroprotective activities. Using two different models of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, we herein demonstrate selective C1q complement activation on neuron cell bodies and axons. Interestingly, in brains with chronic but not acute experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, C3b opsonization of neuronal cell bodies and axons was consistently associated with robust neuronal expression of one of the most effective complement regulators, decay-accelerating factor (CD55). In contrast, levels of other complement inhibitors, complement receptor 1 (CD35), membrane cofactor protein (CD46), and CD59 were largely unaffected on neurons and reactive glial cells in both conditions. In vitro, we found that proinflammatory stimuli (cytokines and sublytic doses of complement) failed to up-regulate CD55 expression on cultured IMR32 neuronal cells. Interestingly, overexpression of GPI-anchored CD55 on IMR32 was capable of modulating raft-associated protein kinase activities without affecting MAPK activities and neuronal apoptosis. Critically, ectopic expression of decay-accelerating factor conferred strong protection of neurons against complement attack (opsonization and lysis). We conclude that increased CD55 expression by neurons may represent a key protective signaling mechanism mobilized by brain cells to withstand complement activation and to survive within an inflammatory site.

Adherence modifies the regulation of gene expression induced by interleukin-10.

Interleukin-10 (IL-10) is a well known anti-inflammatory cytokine. However, we previously showed that it could present pro-inflammatory properties on human monocytes in the absence of adherence. In the present study, using macroarray technology, we analyzed the effects of IL-10 and adherence on the expression of 1050 genes in human monocytes cultured for 3 hours on plastic or Teflon(R) (to avoid adherence). Adherence alone induced specifically the expression of 12 genes and repressed that of 25 genes. In adherent monocytes, IL-10 induced the expression of 21 genes and repressed that of 50 genes. In non-adherent monocytes, IL-10 induced the expression of 45 genes and repressed that of 67. Only 3 common genes were induced while 35 common genes were repressed by IL-10 in the two culture conditions. Interestingly, we showed that IL-10 modulated conversely on Teflon(R) and plastic the expression of 16 genes, of which SOCS molecules, coproporphyrinogen oxidase, matrix metalloproteinases and complement receptor-1 (CD35). This study demonstrates that adherence has profound modulatory effects on the properties and the signaling induced by IL-10. The discovery that IL-10 can inhibit the production of coproporphyrinogen oxidase (an enzyme involved in the synthesis of heme) may shed some lights on the mechanisms of anaemia induced by IL-10. Furthermore, the inhibition of the expression of SOCS1 by IL-10 in the absence of adherence, may explain its priming effects on a subsequent LPS stimulation that we previously described.

The virulence function of Streptococcus pneumoniae surface protein A involves inhibition of complement activation and impairment of complement receptor-mediated protection.

Complement is important for elimination of invasive microbes from the host, an action achieved largely through interaction of complement-decorated pathogens with various complement receptors (CR) on phagocytes. Pneumococcal surface protein A (PspA) has been shown to interfere with complement deposition onto pneumococci, but to date the impact of PspA on CR-mediated host defense is unknown. To gauge the contribution of CRs to host defense against pneumococci and to decipher the impact of PspA on CR-dependent host defense, wild-type C57BL/6J mice and mutant mice lacking CR types 1 and 2 (CR1/2(-/-)), CR3 (CR3(-/-)), or CR4 (CR4(-/-)) were challenged with WU2, a PspA(+) capsular serotype 3 pneumococcus, and its PspA(-) mutant JY1119. Pneumococci also were used to challenge factor D-deficient (FD(-/-)), LFA-1-deficient (LFA-1(-/-)), and CD18-deficient (CD18(-/-)) mice. We found that FD(-/-), CR3(-/-), and CR4(-/-) mice had significantly decreased longevity and survival rate upon infection with WU2. In comparison, PspA(-) pneumococci were virulent only in FD(-/-) and CR1/2(-/-) mice. Normal mouse serum supported more C3 deposition on pneumococci than FD(-/-) serum, and more iC3b was deposited onto the PspA(-) than the PspA(+) strain. The combined results confirm earlier conclusions that the alternative pathway of complement activation is indispensable for innate immunity against pneumococcal infection and that PspA interferes with the protective role of the alternative pathway. Our new results suggest that complement receptors CR1/2, CR3, and CR4 all play important roles in host defense against pneumococcal infection.

Cutting edge: BAFF regulates CD21/35 and CD23 expression independent of its B cell survival function.

Herein we demonstrate that B cell-activating factor of the TNF family (BAFF), a B cell survival factor, also regulates CD21/35 and CD23 expression. BAFF blockade in wild-type mice down-modulates CD21/35 and CD23 on B cells while survival remains intact, and BAFF exposure causes elevated CD21/35 and CD23 expression. Similar down-modulation is observed in bcl-2-transgenic mice treated with a BAFF inhibitor. This is the first evidence that BAFF has a function independent of B cell survival. Reports using CD21/35 and CD23 expression to assess splenic B cell subsets in BAFF-null mice concluded a lack of B cells beyond the immature stage. Since CD21/35 and CD23 are inadequate for delineating B cell subpopulations in BAFF-null mice, we used expression of BAFF-R and several B cell markers to identify more mature splenic B cells in these mice. These data broaden our understanding of BAFF function and correct the view that BAFF-null mice lack mature B cells.

A human CR1-like transcript containing sequence for a binding protein for iC4 is expressed in hematopoietic and fetal lymphoid tissue.

Primate immune adherence receptors are erythrocyte complement receptors (E-CR) that favorably influence the clearance of circulating immune complexes (IC). The human E-CR is the type one complement receptor (CR1), most commonly expressed as a 220 kDa protein containing 30 short consensus repeats (SCRs). The chimpanzee E-CR is a 75 kDa protein composed of eight SCRs, and is encoded by an ortholog of human CR1-like (CR1L), a genetic element related to CR1. Human CR1L was previously identified from genomic clones that predict exons for seven SCRs, and there have been no reports of CR1L expression. The purpose of this study was to determine if human CR1L is expressed. Amplification of human bone marrow cDNA using primers specific for CR1/CR1L yielded a product similar to chimp CR1L encoding sequence. The first 6.5 SCRs matched 100% with the predicted human CR1L sequence, while the second half of SCR 7 was homologous to the comparable chimp CR1L sequence but with a stop codon. Expression in COS-7 cells yielded a human CR1L protein of approximately 50 kDa that exhibited binding specificity for iC4 but not for iC3. Neither northern nor western blot analysis of human bone marrow revealed the presence of the CR1L transcript or protein. However, northern blot analysis of various other lymphoid tissue identified a candidate CR1L transcript in human fetal liver. PCR amplification of a cDNA panel of human fetal tissue confirmed the presence of the CR1L transcript in fetal liver, and to a lesser extent in fetal spleen and thymus. Thus, expression of the CR1L transcript appears to be limited to hematopoietic and fetal lymphoid tissue.

[Modulation of Fcgamma and C3b receptor expression by marine bioglycans in mouse splenocytes]. / Moduliatsiia ékspressii Fcgamma i C3b retseptorov splenotsitov myshei bioglikanami morskogo proiskhozhdeniia.

Investigation of polysacharide immunomodulators of marine origin was performed--mitilane, alpha-1,4;1,6-D-glucane, isolated from midia Crenomytilus grayanus, and translam--beta-1,3;1,6-D-glucane isolated from marine algae Laminaria cichorioides were compared. Mechanisms of phagocytes cells activation were investigated. Dose-dependent ability of investigated bioglycanes to facilitate Fc gamma R [symbol: see text] C3bR expression at mice splenocytes was demonstrated in vivo and in vitro. The effect depended on immunomodulator type, incubation conditions, dose, period of incubation in vitro and by splenocytes population used for Fc gamma R and C3bR identification. It was shown that C3bR expression was more enhanced by immunomodulators than Fc gamma R expression. For Fc gamma R induction on lymphocytes membranes the presence of phagocytes cell (macrophages and neutrophils) is obligatory. Mitilane, containing alpha-1,4;1,6-D-glucane and some amount of protein is more effective in stimulation of membrane receptors expression than translam--beta-1,3;1,6-D-glucane. The results of investigation demonstrates the possibility to use marine bioglicanes as activators of Fc gamma R and C3bR activity, that is the base for control of pathological processes, related to immune system.

Erythrocyte CR1 expression level does not correlate with a HindIII restriction fragment length polymorphism in Africans; implications for studies on malaria susceptibility.

Complement receptor 1 (CR1) expression level on erythrocytes is genetically determined, and in Caucasian populations is linked to high (H) and low (L) expression alleles identified by a HindIII restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP). Erythrocyte CR1 may be an important factor in determining malaria susceptibility, as low expression of CR1 reduces the rosetting of uninfected erythrocytes with Plasmodium falciparum-infected cells, a process that contributes to malaria pathogenesis. Prior to studying CR1 expression and malaria susceptibility, we have investigated whether the quantity of erythrocyte CR1 correlates with the H and L alleles in an African population. Mean erythrocyte CR1 in 149 Malian adults was 415 molecules per cell, which is comparable to Caucasian populations; however, there was no relationship between erythrocyte CR1 level and genotype for the HindIII RFLP (mean CR1 per erythrocyte HH = 414, HL = 419 and LL = 403, P > 0.1, Student's t-test). The conclusions of a previous study of erythrocyte CR1 expression level and malaria susceptibility in West Africa that was based on HindIII RFLP genotyping may therefore need to be re-evaluated.

Sustained microglial immunoreactivity in the caudal spinal trigeminal nucleus after formalin injection.

Recent studies indicate that glia may be involved in altered nociceptive processing after a peripheral inflammatory lesion produced by injection of inflammatory reagents such as formalin and zymosan. Most of these studies, however, confined their observations to a period shortly after the injections. This study investigated the immunohistochemical responses of microglia in the caudal part of the spinal trigeminal nucleus for up to 60 days after subcutaneous injection of formalin into the lateral faces of Wistar rats. The results showed obvious up-regulation of microglial markers such as OX-18, OX-42 and OX-6 up to 21 days after formalin injection. These were somewhat reduced at 30 days after injection. Electron microscope investigation revealed no evidence of significant phagocytosis of degenerative neuronal elements by microglia in the nucleus at the time--that is, 7 days after formalin injection, when microglial activation was at its peak. Significantly, however, the period of microglial activation corresponded closely to that showing enhanced nociceptive behavior after perioral formalin injection (Cadet et al., 1995). This study indicates a microglial role in the genesis of enhanced nociceptive behavior.