New insights on the taxonomy of Diadumene paranaensis (Cnidaria: Actiniaria) associated with mangrove roots in the Brazilian semi-arid coast.

A dense estuarine aggregation of Diadumene paranaensis Beneti, Stampar, Maronna, Morandini & Da Silveira, 2015 associated with Rhizophora mangle L. was found at the Arpoeiras Beach, mouth of Acaraú River, Ceará, Brazilian semi-arid coast. Here, we compare biological and taxonomical traits with the type material, collected from the portuary zone of Paranaguá Bay, and propose modifications in the diagnosis of the species, as well as of the family Diadumenidae and genus Diadumene, to align with the description of our specimens. In addition, we discuss its tolerance to high salinity and predict a much broader geographic range for this sea anemone in Brazil.

Ethnopharmacology, Phytochemistry, and Global Distribution of Mangroves-A Comprehensive Review.

Mangroves are ecologically important plants in marine habitats that occupy the coastlines of many countries. In addition to their key ecological importance, various parts of mangroves are widely used in folklore medicine and claimed to effectively manage a panoply of human pathologies. To date, no comprehensive attempt has been made to compile and critically analyze the published literature in light of its ethnopharmacological uses. This review aims to provide a comprehensive account of the morphological characteristics, ethnobotany, global distribution, taxonomy, ethnopharmacology, phytochemical profiles, and pharmacological activities of traditionally used mangroves. Out of 84 mangrove species, only 27 species were found to be traditionally used, however not all of them are pharmacologically validated. The most common pharmacological activities reported were antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antidiabetic properties. Mangroves traditionally reported against ulcers have not been extensively validated for possible pharmacological properties. Terpenoids, tannins, steroids, alkaloids, flavonoids, and saponins were the main classes of phytochemicals isolated from mangroves. Given that mangroves have huge potential for a wide array of medicinal products and drug discovery to prevent and treat many diseases, there is a dire need for careful investigations substantiated with accurate scientific and clinical evidence to ensure safety and efficient use of these plants and validate their pharmacological properties and toxicity.

Expression, purification and molecular characterization of a novel transcription factor KcCBF3 from Kandelia candel.

Kandelia candel, a major species of mangrove in the tropical and subtropical area, is susceptible to low temperature in winter. K. candel was introduced into Zhejiang Province (the northern margin of South China) several decades ago, and suffered from low temperature causing growth retardation, in server cases, even death. To explore the molecular mechanisms of cold acclimation in K. candel, a novel C-repeat binding factor gene KcCBF3 (Genbank accession no. KF111715) of 729 bp open reading frame (ORF) encoding a protein of 242 amino acid residues was isolated, expressed, purified and characterized. Multiple sequence alignment analysis revealed that KcCBF3 contained a highly conserved AP2/EREBP DNA-binding domain which consisting of 79 amino acid residues, as well as two CBF signature sequences. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that KcCBF3 belonged to the A-1 subgroup of DREB subfamily based on the classification of AP2/EREBP transcription factors in Arabidopsis. Semi-quantitative RT-PCR showed that KcCBF3 transcripts were highly accumulated in roots and leaves, and could be induced by low temperature. Electrophoresis mobility shift assay (EMSA) demonstrated KcCBF3 could bind to the core sequence (CCGAC) of cis-acting element C-repeat (CRT)/dehydration-responsive element (DRE) in vitro. These results implied that KcCBF3 might participate in the adaptation of K. candel to low-temperature stress by binding to CRT/DRE element.

Desenvolvimento de oleogéis à base de óleo de girassol alto oleico estruturados por monoestearato de sorbitana e cera de candelilla / Development of high oleic sunflower oil oleogel structured with candelilla wax and sorbitan monostearate

As gorduras ricas em ácidos graxos saturados e/ou trans são ingredientes que brindam propriedades nos alimentos como textura, fusão e estabilidade. Porém, a relação entre seu consumo e enfermidades cardiovasculares, força a busca de novas alternativas. Uma alternativa potencial são os oleogéis, pois são um material plástico e com melhor balanço lipídico, do ponto de vista nutricional. Os oleogéis são sistemas coloidais onde uma fase orgânica líquida, representada por um óleo, é imobilizada por uma rede sólida tridimensional formada por agentes estruturantes. Atualmente, tem sido estudados oleogéis conformados com variados agentes estruturantes, com o intuito de encontrar a melhor opção. Além disso, alguns estudos indicam que o uso combinado de dois ou mais agentes estruturantes pode resultar no aumento de seu potencial de estruturação de óleos ou na possibilidade de customizar as propriedades adequadas para produção alimentar. Assim, o objetivo deste estudo é avaliar a interação entre os componentes de oleogéis preparados com óleo de girassol alto oleico (HOSO), como base lipídica, e combinações de cera de candelilla (CW) e monoestearato de sorbitana (SMS), como agentes estruturantes. A avaliação dos oleogéis por meio dos diagramas de fases e a consistência, mostrou que há uma sinergia entre os componentes, na concentração de 8 e 4% de agentes estruturantes e 79-89% de cera de candelilla. Estes oleogéis mistos tiveram uma faixa de fusão maior do que os oleogéis não mistos. Sugerindo a construição de cristais mais estáveis, que demoraram mais tempo em fundir. A capacidade de retenção de óleo se mostrou adequada (99%) nas amostras contendo mais de 1% de agentes estruturantes e com mais de 40% de Cera de Candelilla. Nas imagens obtidas por PLM, foi observada uma variedade de tamanho de cristais, sugerindo que cada componente do oleogel formou um tipo de cristal. Com a elaboração de bigéis, foi notado que, para obter um produto satisfatoriamente espalhável ou para observar o aumento de sua consistência em comparação com o oleogel isoladamente, é necessária uma concentração maior do que 4% de agentes estruturantes no oleogel e/ou a adição de menos de 20% de água na formulação total. A estabilidade dos bigéis foi beneficiada pela goma xantana e pela mistura de 2:1 de goma xantana e goma guar na concentração de 0,3%. Dessa forma, o desenvolvimento de alimentos com teores reduzidos de gorduras saturadas e ao mesmo tempo livres de gorduras trans se faz possível com a formulação de oleogéis, o que poderá contribuir para melhorar a qualidade nutricional dos alimentos industrializados oferecidos à população

Fats rich in saturated and / or trans fatty acids provide properties in food such as texture, fusion and stability. But, since those fats increase cardiovascular disease risk, alternatives have been searched. A potential alternative is oleogels, as they are a plastic material with better lipid balance from a nutritional point of view. Oleogels are colloidal systems where a liquid organic phase, represented by an oil, is immobilized by a three-dimensional solid network formed by structuring agents. Currently, oleogels conformed with various structuring agents have been studied in order to find the best option. In addition, some studies indicate that the combined use of two or more structuring agents may result in increased oil structuring potential or the possibility of customizing the properties suitable for food production. Thus, the aim of this study is to evaluate the interaction between the components of oleogels prepared with high oleic sunflower oil (HOSO) as a lipid base and combinations of candelilla wax (CW) and sorbitan monostearate (SMS) as structuring agents. The evaluation of oleogels by phase diagrams and consistency (Yield value) showed that there is a synergy between the components, in the concentration of 8 and 4% of structuring agents and 79-89% of candelilla wax. These mixed oleogels had a higher melting range than unmixed oleogels. Suggesting the construction of more stable crystals, which took longer to fuse. Oil binding capacity was adequate (99%) in samples containing more than 1% of structuring agents and over 40% of candelilla wax. In the PLM images, a variety of crystal sizes were observed, suggesting that each oleogel component formed a crystal type. With the elaboration of bigels, it was noted that in order to obtain a satisfactorily spreadable product or to observe the increase of its consistency compared to the oleogel alone, a concentration greater than 4% of structuring agents in the oleogel and / or the addition of less than 20% water in the total formulation. The stability of the bigels was benefited by xanthan gum and the 2: 1 mixture of xanthan gum and guar gum at a concentration of 0.3%.Thus, the development of foods with reduced levels of saturated fat and at the same time free of trans fats is possible with the formulation of oleogels, which may contribute to improve the nutritional quality of processed foods offered to the population

Terrestrial species adapted to sea dispersal: Differences in propagule dispersal of two Caribbean mangroves.

A central goal of comparative phylogeography is to understand how species-specific traits interact with geomorphological history to govern the geographic distribution of genetic variation within species. One key biotic trait with an immense impact on the spatial patterns of intraspecific genetic differentiation is dispersal. Here, we quantify how species-specific traits directly related to dispersal affect genetic variation in terrestrial organisms with adaptations for dispersal by sea, not land-the mangroves of the Caribbean. We investigate the phylogeography of white mangroves (Laguncularia racemosa, Combretaceae) and red mangroves (Rhizophora mangle, Rhizophoraceae) using chloroplast genomes and nuclear markers (thousands of RAD-Seq loci) from individuals throughout the Caribbean. Both coastal tree species have viviparous propagules that can float in salt water for months, meaning they are capable of dispersing long distances. Spatially explicit tests of the role of ocean currents on patterning genetic diversity revealed that ocean currents act as a mechanism for facilitating dispersal, but other means of moving genetic material are also important. We measured pollen- vs. propagule-mediated gene flow and discovered that in white mangroves, seeds were more important for promoting genetic connectivity between populations, but in red mangroves, the opposite was true: pollen contributed more. This result challenges our concept of the importance of both proximity to ocean currents for moving mangrove seeds and the extent of long-distance pollen dispersal. This study also highlights the importance of spatially explicit quantification of both abiotic (ocean currents) and biotic (dispersal) factors contributing to gene flow to understand fully the phylogeographic histories of species.

[Characteristics of Iron Plaque and Its Heavy Metal Enrichment in Typical Mangrove Plants in Shenzhen Bay, China].

Based on the five typical mangrove species in the mangrove wetland of Shenzhen Bay, the contents and distributional characteristics of iron plaques (Fe) and the Mn, Pb, Zn, Cu, As, Cr, Cd, Ni, Co, and Sb enrichment of the iron plaques on mangrove plant roots were investigated. The results show that:① There is a significant difference in the contents of iron plaques among the five mangrove species, and the contents in the species follow the order:Acanthus ilicifolius > Aeagiceras corniculatum > Bruguiera gymnorrhiza > Kandelia obovate > Heritiera littorlis; the content ranged from 0.37 g·kg-1 to 10.81 g·kg-1. ② Iron plaques have a certain enrichment effect on the heavy metals in the sediments. The contents of heavy metals in the iron plaques vary with the plant species, being the highest in A. ilicifolius and the lowest in H. littorlis. This enrichment also varies with the element species:Mn content changed from 0.11 g·kg-1 to 2.67 g·kg-1; the highest contents of Pb, Zn, Cu, As, and Cr changed from 117.44 mg·kg-1 to 189.69 mg·kg-1; and the highest contents of Cd, Ni, Co. and Sb changed from 34.84 mg·kg-1 to 63.34 mg·kg-1. The content of Zn in the iron plaque is negatively correlated with the other heavy metal contents (P<0.001), indicating that Zn might compete with the other elements. ③ Sediment pH significantly affects the content of iron plaque and the accumulation of Mn in the iron plaque (P<0.05). The water content and salinity of the sediments are positively correlated with the contents of heavy metals Cr and Co in the iron plaque (P<0.05). ④ The distribution of iron plaques and their heavy metal contents in different parts of the roots of the mangrove plants follow the order:root tip > root middle > root base.

Metatranscriptomics analysis of mangroves habitats around Mauritius.

Mangroves are unique but endangered coastal ecosystems that play a vital role in the tropical and subtropical environments. Mauritius has two species of mangroves, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Lam. and Rhizophora mucronata Lam., growing along its coast. The mangrove rhizosphere harbours a diverse microbial community and the use of RNA-sequencing can reveal both the taxonomic composition and active biochemical functions of the complex microbial community. Metatranscriptomic study was carried out by comparing the microbial community of rhizosphere microbiomes sediments from the two mangroves species. The study also included a comparison between a natural and a man grown mangrove microbiome. Overall, samples showed predominance by Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes, with high abundance of sulphate reducers, nitrogen reducers and methanogens. Significant difference was, however, noted at both taxonomic and functional levels among the mangroves species. The data also indicate that the microbial core involved in methane, nitrogen, and sulphur metabolism consisted mainly of Burkholderiaceae, Planctomycetaceae, Rhodobacteraceae, and Desulfobacteraceae. Also, genes encoding enzymes involved in carbon cycling, the metabolism of nitrogen, methane and sulphur were dominant in the rhizosphere of the natural mangrove ecosystem. To our knowledge, this is a first metatranscriptomic study on the microbiome of mangroves in the Mauritius, and our results provide the first insights in the range of functions and microbial diversity of the local mangrove species.

Ecuaciones alométricas de biomasa aérea para la estimación de los contenidos de carbono en manglares del Caribe Colombiano / Tree above-ground biomass allometries for carbon stocks estimation in the Caribbean mangroves in Colombia

ResumenLa distribución de carbono azul en los ecosistemas, entre los que se cuentan los manglares, es poco conocida en comparación con los grandes avances que existen para los ecosistemas forestales terrestres, a pesar de que su alta productividad y capacidad de almacenamiento de carbono es reconocida. Este estudio, tuvo por objetivo, analizar la biomasa aérea de las especies Rhizophora mangle y Avicennia germinans en el ecosistema de manglar localizado en el área marina protegida denominada Distrito de Manejo Integrado (DMI) Cispatá-Tinajones-La Balsa en el Caribe colombiano. Para ello, con la debida autorización oficial, se cosecharon 30 individuos de cada especie, con el fin de generar modelos alométricos que permitieran estimaciones de biomasa aérea con bajos niveles de incertidumbre. Los resultados indican que la biomasa aérea de los bosques de manglar del Caribe colombiano en el DMI, es de 129.69 ± 20.24 Mg/ha, es decir, que almacenan 64.85 ± 10.12 MgC/ ha. Teniendo en cuenta que el DMI presenta un área de 8 570.9 ha en bosques de manglar, se estima que el carbono total potencialmente almacenado por este ecosistema es de aproximadamente 555 795.93 MgC. Las ecuaciones generadas en este estudio se pueden considerar como una opción alternativa para la evaluación de las reservas de carbono en la biomasa aérea de los bosques de manglar en del Caribe colombiano, dado que otros modelos disponibles para la estimación de la biomasa aérea no discriminan a los bosques de manglar, a pesar de ser ecosistemas particulares. Los modelos pueden ser empleados como una opción para apoyar las estrategias de conservación de bosques y la reducción de emisiones. En general, el potencial de almacenamiento de carbono en los bosques de manglar del Caribe colombiano, es importante, y podría posesionar al país en la conservación de bosques y la reducción de emisiones a través de la conservación del carbono azul almacenado.

AbstractThe distribution of carbon in “Blue Carbon” ecosystems such as mangroves is little known, when compared with the highly known terrestrial forests, despite its particular and recognized high productivity and carbon storage capacity. The objective of this study was to analyze the above ground biomass (AGB) of the species Rhizophora mangle and Avicennia germinans from the Marine Protected Area of Distrito de Manejo Integrado (DMI), Cispatá-Tinajones-La Balsa, Caribbean Colombian coast. With official authorization, we harvested and studied 30 individuals of each species, and built allometric models in order to estimate AGB. Our AGB results indicated that the studied mangrove forests of the DMI Colombian Caribbean was of 129.69 ± 20.24 Mg/ha, equivalent to 64.85 ± 10.12 MgC/ha. The DMI has an area of 8 570.9 ha in mangrove forests, and we estimated that the total carbon potential stored was about 555 795.93 Mg C. The equations generated in this study can be considered as an alternative for the assessment of carbon stocks in AGB of mangrove forests in Colombia; as other available AGB allometric models do not discriminate mangrove forests, despite being particular ecosystems. They can be used for analysis at a more detailed scale and are considered useful to determine the carbon storage potential of mangrove forests, as a country alternative to support forest conservation and emission reduction strategies. In general, the potential of carbon storage from Colombian Caribbean mangrove forests is important and could promote the country leadership of the “blue carbon” stored. Rev. Biol. Trop. 64 (2): 913-926. Epub 2016 June 01.

Leaf morphological strategies of seedlings and saplings of Rhizophora mangle (Rhizophoraceae), Laguncularia racemosa (Combretaceae) and Avicennia schaueriana (Acanthaceae) from Southern Brazil

AbstractThe initial phase of a plant life cycle is a short and critical period, when individuals are more vulnerable to environmental factors. The morphological and anatomical study of seedlings and saplings leaf type enables the understanding of species strategies of fundamental importance in their establishment and survival. The objective of this study was to analyze the structure of seedlings and saplings leaf types of three mangrove species, Avicennia schaueriana, Laguncularia racemosa, Rhizophora mangle, to understand their early life adaptive strategies to the environment. A total of 30 fully expanded cotyledons (A. schaueriana and L. racemosa), 30 leaves of seedlings, and 30 leaves of saplings of each species were collected from a mangrove area in Guaratuba Bay, Paraná State, Brazil. Following standard methods, samples were prepared for morphological (leaf dry mass, density, thickness) and anatomical analysis (epidermis and sub-epidermal layers, stomata types, density of salt secretion glands, palisade and spongy parenchyma thickness). To compare leaf types among species one-way ANOVA and Principal Component Analysis were used, while Cluster Analysis evaluated differences between the species. We observed significant structural differences among species leaf types. A. schaueriana showed the thickest cotyledons, while L. racemosa presented a dorsiventral structure. Higher values of the specific leaf area were observed for seedlings leaves of A. schaueriana, cotyledons of L. racemosa and saplings leaves of A. schaueriana and R. mangle. Leaf density was similar to cotyledons and seedlings leaves in A. schaueriana and L. racemosa, while R. mangle had seedlings leaves denser than saplings. A. schaueriana and R. mangle showed hypostomatic leaves, while L. racemosa amphistomatic; besides, A. chaueriana showed diacytic stomata, while L. racemosa anomocytic, and R. mangle ciclocytic. Seedling leaves were thicker in R. mangle (535 µm) and L.racemosa (520 µm) than in A. schaueriana (470.3 µm); while saplings leaves were thicker in L. racemosa (568.3 µm) than in A. schaueriana seedlings (512.4 µm) and R. mangle (514.6 µm). Besides, seedlings leaves palisade parenchyma showed increasing thickness in L. racemosa (119.2 µm) <A. schaueriana (155.5 µm) <R. mangle (175.4 µm); while in saplings leaves as follows R. mangle (128.4 µm) <A. schaueriana (183.4 µm) <L. racemosa (193.9 µm). Similarly, seedlings leaves spongy parenchyma thickness values were as follows A. schaueriana (182.6 µm) = R. mangle (192.8 µm) <L. racemosa (354.4 µm); while in saplings were A. schaueriana (182.6 µm) = R. mangle (187.3 µm) <L. racemosa (331.3 µm). The analyzed traits, in different combinations, represent morphological adjustments of leaf types to reduce water loss, eliminate salt excess, increase the absorption of light, allowing a higher efficiency on the maintenance of physiological processes in this initial growth stage. Rev. Biol. Trop. 64 (1): 305-317. Epub 2016 March 01.

ResumenLa fase inicial del ciclo de vida de una planta es un período corto y crítico, cuando los individuos son más vulnerables a factores ambientales. El estudio morfológico y anatómico del tipo de hojas de las plántulas y árboles pequeños, permite la comprensión de las estrategias de las especies, que es de importancia fundamental para su establecimiento y supervivencia. El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar la estructura de los tipos de hojas de las plántulas y árboles pequeños de tres especies de mangle: Avicennia schaueriana, Laguncularia racemosa y Rhizophora mangle, para entender sus estrategias de vida tempranas de adaptación al ambiente. Un total de 30 cotiledones completamente abiertos (A. schaueriana y L. racemosa), 30 hojas de plántulas, y 30 hojas de árboles pequeños de cada especie se recolectaron en una área de manglar en Bahía Guaratuba, Estado de Paraná, Brasil. Siguiendo los métodos estándares, se prepararon muestras para análisis morfológicos (biomasa de hoja seca, densidad y espesor) y anatómicos (epidermis y capas sub-epidérmicas, tipos de estomas, densidad de glándulas secretoras de sal y grosor del parénquima empalizado y del esponjoso). Para comparar los tipos de hojas entre las especies se utilizaron un modelo lineal y Análisis de Componentes Principales, mientras que un análisis de conglomerados evaluó las diferencias entre las especies. Observamos diferencias estructurales significativas entre tipos de hoja en las especies. A.schaueriana mostró cotiledones más gruesos, mientras que L. racemosa presenta una estructura dorsiventral. Se observaron valores más altos del área foliar específica para las hojas de las plántulas de A. schaueriana, cotiledones de L. racemosa y hojas de árboles pequeños de A. schaueriana y R. mangle. La densidad de la hoja fue similar a la de los cotiledones y hojas de plántulas de A. schaueriana y L. racemosa, mientras que R. mangle tenía las hojas de las plántulas más gruesas que los árboles pequeños. A. schaueriana y R. mangle mostraron hojas hipostomáticas; L. racemosa anfiestomáticas; por otro lado A. chaueriana mostró estomas diacíticos, L. racemosa anomocíticos y R. mangle ciclocíticos. Las hojas de las plántulas eran más gruesas en R. mangle (535 micras) y L. racemosa (520 micras) que en A. schaueriana (470.3 m); mientras que las hojas de las plántulas eran más gruesas en L. racemosa (568.3 m) que en A. schaueriana (512.4 micras) y R. mangle (514.6 m). Además el parénquima empalizado de las plántulas mostró un aumento de espesor en L. racemosa (119.2 m) <A. schaueriana (155.5 m) <R. mangle (175.4 m); mientras que en las hojas de los árboles pequeños fue de siguiente manera: R. mangle (128.4 m) <A. schaueriana (183.4 m) <L. racemosa (193.9 m). Del mismo modo, en las hojas de las plántulas los valores del espesor del parénquima esponjoso fueron: A. schaueriana (182.6 m) = R. mangle (192.8 m) <L. racemosa (354.4 m); mientras que en los árboles pequeños: A. schaueriana (182.6 m) = R. mangle (187.3 m) <L. racemosa (331.3 m). Los rasgos analizados, en diferentes combinaciones, representan ajustes morfológicos de tipos de hojas para reducir la pérdida de agua, eliminar el exceso de sal, aumentar la absorción de la luz, lo que permite una mayor eficiencia en el mantenimiento de los procesos fisiológicos en esta etapa de crecimiento inicial.

[Tree above-ground biomass allometries for carbon stocks estimation in the Caribbean mangroves in Colombia]. / Ecuaciones alométricas de biomasa aérea para la estimación de los contenidos de carbono en manglares del Caribe Colombiano.

The distribution of carbon in "Blue Carbon" ecosystems such as mangroves is little known, when compared with the highly known terrestrial forests, despite its particular and recognized high productivity and carbon storage capacity. The objective of this study was to analyze the above ground biomass (AGB) of the species Rhizophora mangle and Avicennia germinans from the Marine Protected Area of Distrito de Manejo Integrado (DMI), Cispatá-Tinajones-La Balsa, Caribbean Colombian coast. With official authorization, we harvested and studied 30 individuals of each species, and built allometric models in order to estimate AGB. Our AGB results indicated that the studied mangrove forests of the DMI Colombian Caribbean was of 129.69 ± 20.24 Mg/ha, equivalent to 64.85 ± 10.12 MgC/ha. The DMI has an area of 8 570.9 ha in mangrove forests, and we estimated that the total carbon potential stored was about 555 795.93 Mg C. The equations generated in this study can be considered as an alternative for the assessment of carbon stocks in AGB of mangrove forests in Colombia; as other available AGB allometric models do not discriminate mangrove forests, despite being particular ecosystems. They can be used for analysis at a more detailed scale and are considered useful to determine the carbon storage potential of mangrove forests, as a country alternative to support forest conservation and emission reduction strategies. In general, the potential of carbon storage from Colombian Caribbean mangrove forests is important and could promote the country leadership of the "blue carbon" stored.

Leaf morphological strategies of seedlings and saplings of Rhizophora mangle (Rhizophoraceae), Laguncularia racemosa (Combretaceae) and Avicennia schaueriana (Acanthaceae) from Southern Brazil.

The initial phase of a plant life cycle is a short and critical period, when individuals are more vulnerable to environmental factors. The morphological and anatomical study of seedlings and saplings leaf type enables the understanding of species strategies of fundamental importance in their establishment and survival. The objective of this study was to analyze the structure of seedlings and saplings leaf types of three mangrove species, Avicennia schaueriana, Laguncularia racemosa, Rhizophora mangle, to understand their early life adaptive strategies to the environment. A total of 30 fully expanded cotyledons (A. schaueriana and L. racemosa), 30 leaves of seedlings, and 30 leaves of saplings of each species were collected from a mangrove area in Guaratuba Bay, Paraná State, Brazil. Following standard methods, samples were prepared for morphological (leaf dry mass, density, thickness) and anatomical analysis (epidermis and sub-epidermal layers, stomata types, density of salt secretion glands, palisade and spongy parenchyma thickness). To compare leaf types among species one-way ANOVA and Principal Component Analysis were used, while Cluster Analysis evaluated differences between the species. We observed significant structural differences among species leaf types. A. schaueriana showed the thickest cotyledons, while L. racemosa presented a dorsiventral structure. Higher values of the specific leaf area were observed for seedlings leaves of A. schaueriana, cotyledons of L. racemosa and saplings leaves of A. schaueriana and R. mangle. Leaf density was similar to cotyledons and seedlings leaves in A. schaueriana and L. racemosa, while R. mangle had seedlings leaves denser than saplings. A. schaueriana and R. mangle showed hypostomatic leaves, while L. racemosa amphistomatic; besides, A. chaueriana showed diacytic stomata, while L. racemosa anomocytic, and R. mangle ciclocytic. Seedling leaves were thicker in R. mangle (535 µm) and L. racemosa (520 µm) than in A. schaueriana (470.3 µm); while saplings leaves were thicker in L. racemosa (568.3 µm) than in A. schaueriana seedlings (512.4 µm) and R. mangle (514.6 µm). Besides, seedlings leaves palisade parenchyma showed increasing thickness in L. racemosa (119.2 µm) < A. schaueriana (155.5 µm) < R. mangle (175.4 µm); while in saplings leaves as follows R. mangle (128.4 µm) < A. schaueriana (183.4 µm) < L. racemosa (193.9 µm). Similarly, seedlings leaves spongy parenchyma thickness values were as follows A. schaueriana (182.6 µm) = R. mangle (192.8 µm) < L. racemosa (354.4 µm); while in saplings were A. schaueriana (182.6 µm) = R. mangle (187.3 µm) < L. racemosa (331.3 µm). The analyzed traits, in different combinations, represent morphological adjustments of leaf types to reduce water loss, eliminate salt excess, increase the absorption of light, allowing a higher efficiency on the maintenance of physiological processes in this initial growth stage.

Genetic differentiation and phylogeography of partially sympatric species complex Rhizophora mucronata Lam. and R. stylosa Griff. using SSR markers.

BACKGROUND: Mangrove forests are ecologically important but globally threatened intertidal plant communities. Effective mangrove conservation requires the determination of species identity, management units, and genetic structure. Here, we investigate the genetic distinctiveness and genetic structure of an iconic but yet taxonomically confusing species complex Rhizophora mucronata and R. stylosa across their distributional range, by employing a suite of 20 informative nuclear SSR markers. RESULTS: Our results demonstrated the general genetic distinctiveness of R. mucronata and R. stylosa, and potential hybridization or introgression between them. We investigated the population genetics of each species without the putative hybrids, and found strong genetic structure between oceanic regions in both R. mucronata and R. stylosa. In R. mucronata, a strong divergence was detected between populations from the Indian Ocean region (Indian Ocean and Andaman Sea) and the Pacific Ocean region (Malacca Strait, South China Sea and Northwest Pacific Ocean). In R. stylosa, the genetic break was located more eastward, between populations from South and East China Sea and populations from the Southwest Pacific Ocean. The location of these genetic breaks coincided with the boundaries of oceanic currents, thus suggesting that oceanic circulation patterns might have acted as a cryptic barrier to gene flow. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings have important implications on the conservation of mangroves, especially relating to replanting efforts and the definition of evolutionary significant units in Rhizophora species. We outlined the genetic structure and identified geographical areas that require further investigations for both R. mucronata and R. stylosa. These results serve as the foundation for the conservation genetics of R. mucronata and R. stylosa and highlighted the need to recognize the genetic distinctiveness of closely-related species, determine their respective genetic structure, and avoid artificially promoting hybridization in mangrove restoration programmes.

Complejidad estructural de los manglares de Playa Blanca, Escondido y Rincón de Osa, Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica / Structural complexity of mangroves in Playa Blanca, Escondido and Rincón de Osa, Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica

Resumen Este estudio reporta las características estructurales y distribución de las especies en los bosques de mangle de Playa Blanca, Escondido y Rincón en Golfo Dulce, Pacífico Sur de Costa Rica. Se realizaron múltiples transectos en cada uno de los manglares. Cada 10m a lo largo de cada transecto se delimitaron parcelas cuadradas de 5x5m. En cada parcela se midió el diámetro a la altura del pecho y altura de los árboles de mangle y se tomaron muestras de sedimento y de agua intersticial (salinidad). Se determinó la densidad total y por especie para cada manglar, el área basal y valor de importancia por especie y la complejidad general entre los manglares. Las especies dominantes en los tres manglares estudiados fueron Rhizophora racemosa y Pelliciera rhizophorae. Los manglares de Playa Blanca y Rincón presentaron mayor similitud en la estructura del bosque entre sí que con el manglar de Escondido. Playa Blanca fue el bosque de mayor altura del dosel y menor densidad; mientras que Escondido presentó mayor densidad y menor altura, así como el menor número de especies y el único donde se encontró la especie Conocarpus erectus. La composición de especies presente en estos manglares coincide con la reportada para la región. Sin embargo, la variación en estructura y complejidad entre los tres manglares es mayor a las similitudes con otros de la región. El estudio histórico y topográfico de estos manglares puede aclarar las variaciones en estructura y complejidad encontrada actualmente entre ellos.

Abstract This study reports the structural characteristics and distribution of species in the mangrove forests of Playa Blanca, Escondido and Rincón de Osa in Golfo Dulce, South Pacific of Costa Rica. Multiple lineal transects were carried out at each of the mangrove forests. Every 10 meters along each transect the diameter at breast height, basal area, and height was determined for all mangrove trees within a 5x5meter square plot. Sediment and interstitial water (salinity) samples were also collected at each plot. Total density of the stand was determined, as were the density of each mangrove species, the importance value and basal area per species, and general complexity indices for each mangrove forest. The dominant species at all three mangroves were Rhizophora racemosa and Pelliciera rhizophorae. Forest structure was more similar between Playa Blanca and Rincón mangroves than with Escondido. Playa Blanca was the forest with the tallest canopy height and lowest density, while Escondido had the highest density and the shortest canopy height. Escondido was also the forest with the least number of species and the only one where Conocarpus erectus was present. Species composition and dominance at these mangroves coincides with that reported for the region. However, the variation in structure and complexity among the three mangroves is greater than the commonalities with mangroves in the region. Topographical and historical analysis of these mangroves could further elucidate the present structure and complexity variation among them. Rev. Biol. Trop. 63 (Suppl. 1): 199-208. Epub 2015 April 01.

Distribución espacial de las especies de mangle y su asociación con los tipos de sedimentos del sustrato, en el sector estuarino del Humedal Nacional Térraba-Sierpe, Costa Rica / Spatial distribution of mangrove species and their association with the substrate sediment types, estuarine sector Térraba-Sierpe National Wetlands, Costa Rica

Resumen Se describe la composición florística del manglar y la distribución espacial de las principales especies de mangle y otras especies vegetales asociadas, presentes en el sector estuarino del Humedal Nacional Térraba-Sierpe, mediante el levantamiento de campo de 1 127 puntos y 77 parcelas de muestreo de 60x10m. Por otra parte, se explora la relación entre el tipo de sedimento subyacente y las especies de mangle establecidas sobre éste. Los resultados de composición, estructura y distribución de la vegetación del HNTS, muestran que el manglar exhibe un modelo o zonación, consistente en la variación desde la costa al continente y de las márgenes de los canales o esteros al interior de las llanuras de marea, de las distintas especies. Rhizophora racemosa y Pelliciera rhizophorae son las especies que muestran una mayor distribución espacial o distribución continua, con los mayores valores de abundancia (45.44% y el 39.92%, respectivamente), frecuencia (88.31% y 74.03%) y área de manglar (7 670.73ha y 5 824.94ha). Se confirmó la dependencia entre la presencia de especies de mangle y el tipo de sedimento del sustrato, de modo que las especies Avicennia spp. y L. racemosa tienden a distribuirse en los sustratos arenosos con mayor facilidad que las otras especies cuya distribución es más homogénea sobre los sustratos lodosos.

Abstract This research describes the floristic composition and spatial distribution of the main mangroves species and other associated flora present in the estuarine sector of Térraba-Sierpe National Wetland, Costa Rican Pacific. Field survey consists of 1 127 points and 77 sampling points of 60x10m. Results of composition, structure and distribution of mangrove in HNTS exhibits a pattern or species zonation. We found variation from the coast to mainland and from the fringe or estuaries to the interior tidal flats. The species Rhizophora racemosa and Pelliciera rhizophorae showed greater spatial and continuous distribution, with the highest values of abundance (45.44% and 39.92% respectively), frequency (88.31% and 74.03%) and mangrove area (7 670.73ha and 5 824.94ha). The mangrove fern, Acrostichum aureum, was the third most important species, meanwhile, Avicennia spp., Rhizophora mangle y Laguncularia racemosa showed a segregated distribution or a tendency to local conglomeration, Talipariti tiliaceum var. pernambucense, Mora oleifera y Conocarpus erectus were found in very localized areas and other species were considered companions with low contribution to the total coverage. The dependence was confirmed between the presence of mangrove species and sediment type substrate. The species Avicennia spp. and L. racemosa tend to be distributed in sandy substrates more easily than the other species whose distribution is more homogeneous on muddy substrates. Rev. Biol. Trop. 63 (Suppl. 1): 47-60. Epub 2015 April 01.

Changes in mangrove species assemblages and future prediction of the Bangladesh Sundarbans using Markov chain model and cellular automata.

The composition and assemblage of mangroves in the Bangladesh Sundarbans are changing systematically in response to several environmental factors. In order to understand the impact of the changing environmental conditions on the mangrove forest, species composition maps for the years 1985, 1995 and 2005 were studied. In the present study, 1985 and 1995 species zonation maps were considered as base data and the cellular automata-Markov chain model was run to predict the species zonation for the year 2005. The model output was validated against the actual dataset for 2005 and calibrated. Finally, using the model, mangrove species zonation maps for the years 2025, 2055 and 2105 have been prepared. The model was run with the assumption that the continuation of the current tempo and mode of drivers of environmental factors (temperature, rainfall, salinity change) of the last two decades will remain the same in the next few decades. Present findings show that the area distribution of the following species assemblages like Goran (Ceriops), Sundari (Heritiera), Passur (Xylocarpus), and Baen (Avicennia) would decrease in the descending order, whereas the area distribution of Gewa (Excoecaria), Keora (Sonneratia) and Kankra (Bruguiera) dominated assemblages would increase. The spatial distribution of projected mangrove species assemblages shows that more salt tolerant species will dominate in the future; which may be used as a proxy to predict the increase of salinity and its spatial variation in Sundarbans. Considering the present rate of loss of forest land, 17% of the total mangrove cover is predicted to be lost by the year 2105 with a significant loss of fresh water loving mangroves and related ecosystem services. This paper describes a unique approach to assess future changes in species composition and future forest zonation in mangroves under the 'business as usual' scenario of climate change.

Variación espacio-temporal de la comunidad de macroinvertebrados epibiontes en las raíces del mangle rojo Rhizophora mangle (Rhizophoraceae) en la laguna costera de La Mancha, Veracruz, México / Spatial-temporal variation of the macroinvertebrate epibiont community on red mangrove prop roots Rhizophora mangle (Rhizophoraceae) at La Mancha coastal lagoon, Veracruz, Mexico

La Mancha lagoon is connected to the Gulf of Mexico through an estuarine ephemeral inlet, a sand bar, which opens during the rainy season and closes during the late fall and the winter storm season. As the lagoon fills up with the permanent stream flow into its Southern part, the water level increases and the sand bar opens up, releasing huge volumes of water into the ocean and leaving the previously flooded intertidal zone exposed to drying. In this study, we described the spatial and temporal variations of structure and composition of the community living on the surface of red mangrove prop roots, related to the hydrodynamic of the estuarine inlet. Four red mangrove prop roots were collected every three months, over an annual period, at ten sampling stations. Water temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, water depth and transparency were also measured at each sampling event. To describe the identity, abundance, biomass, and specific richness of epibiont coverage on the prop roots, measurements were taken at 10cm intervals (herein called “horizons”). A total of 59 632 specimens and a total biomass of 172g/cm2 were registered, and a maximum of eleven horizons presented at least one species of epibionts. Two species of polychaetes, 12 of mollusks and 14 of crustaceans were identified, with Mytilopsis leucophaeata as the most abundant, Ficopomatus miamiensis as the most common and Crassostrea rhizophorae with the highest contribution in biomass. Sampling effort was assessed using species accumulation curves, resulting that the efficiency was, in general, greater than 90% of the richness predicted by asymptotic models. The hydrodynamics of the estuarine inlet had a great influence on the environmental conditions of the lagoon and on the spatial and temporal variation of the epibiont community: (a) when the inlet is open, there is a North-South gradient in environmental parameters (b) when the inlet is closed and the water level increases, the epibionts especially the pioneer species F. miamiensis, occupied the highest horizons of prop roots, and (c) the abundance, biomass and richness of epibionts increased towards the deeper and less saline Southern part of the lagoon, as well as on permanently submerged horizons, and during the seasonal closure of the inlet. Variations in depth are determined by the hydrodynamic behavior of the estuarine inlet, suggesting that these factors are major biodiversity drivers of the epibiont community at La Mancha. Rev. Biol. Trop. 62 (4): 1309-1330. Epub 2014 December 01.

La laguna de La Mancha está conectada al Golfo de México a través de una boca estuarina efímera, una barra arenosa, la cual se abre durante la época de lluvias y se cierra durante el otoño y la temporada de vientos invernales. Cuando la laguna se llena con la entrada de agua proveniente de un arroyo permanente, ubicado en la parte sur, el nivel del agua se incrementa y la barra arenosa se abre, descargando grandes volúmenes de agua hacia el océano y dejando expuesta a la desecación la zona intermareal previamente inundada. En este estudio, se describen las variaciones espacio-temporales de la estructura y composición de la comunidad de epibiontes que vive en la superficie de las raíces del mangle rojo,y su relación con la dinámica hidrológica de la boca estuarina. Se recolectaron cuatro raíces trimestralmente, durante un año, en diez estaciones de muestreo. También se midió la temperatura del agua, salinidad, oxígeno disuelto, profundidad y transparencia en cada muestreo. Se determinó la abundancia, la biomasa y la riqueza específica, a lo largo de las raíces en segmentos verticales de 10cm llamados horizontes. Se registraron un total de 59 632 especímenes y una biomasa total de 172g/cm2, y un máximo de once horizontes presentaron al menos una especie de epibionte. Se identificaron dos especies de poliquetos, 12 de moluscos y 14 de crustáceos, siendo Mytilopsis leucophaeata la más abundante, Ficopomatus miamiensis la más común y Crassostrea rhizophorae la de mayor contribución a la biomasa. Se evaluó la eficiencia del muestreo mediante curvas de acumulación de especies, resultando que la eficiencia fue, en general, >90% de la riqueza estimada por modelos asintóticos. La hidrodinámica de la boca estuarina tuvo gran influencia en las condiciones ambientales de la laguna y en las variaciones espacio-temporales de la comunidad de epibiontes: (a) cuando la boca estuarina está cerrada son más claros los gradientes ambientales norte-sur, (b) cuando la boca estuarina se cierra y el nivel de inundación se incrementa, los epibiontes, especialmente la especie pionera F. miamiensis, ocupan los horizontes más altos de las raíces, (c) la abundancia, biomasa y riqueza específica de los epibiontes se incrementó hacia las partes más profundas del sur de la laguna, así como en los horizontes permanentemente inundados, y durante el cierre estacional de la boca estuarina. Las variaciones en la profundidad dependen de la dinámica de la boca estuarina, sugiriendo que estos factores son los principales parámetros que estructuran a la comunidad de epibiontes de La Mancha.

The community structure of macroscopic basidiomycetes (Fungi) in Brazilian mangroves influenced by temporal and spatial variations / La estructura de la comunidad de basidiomicetos macroscópicos (Fungi) en los manglares brasileños influenciada por las variaciones temporales y espaciales

Mangroves are transitional ecosystems between terrestrial and marine environments, and are distinguished by a high abundance of animals, plants, and fungi. Although macrofungi occur in different types of habitat, including mangroves, little is known about their community structure and dynamic. Therefore the aim of this study was to analyze the diversity of macrofungi in a number of Brazilian mangroves, and the relationship between such diversity, precipitation and area of collection. A total of 32 field trips were undertaken from 2009 to 2010, and macrofungi were studied in four 250×40m transects: Timbó and Santa Cruz Channel on the Northern coast, and Maracaípe and Ariquindá on the Southern coast. All basidiomata found along the transects were placed in paper bags, air-dried and identified using existing literature. It was found that Northern areas predominantly featured Avicennia schaueriana mangroves, while Rhizophora mangle dominated in Southern transects. A total of 275 specimens were collected, and 33 species, 28 genera, 14 families and six orders were represented. Overall abundance and species richness did not vary significantly among areas, but varied according to time, being higher during the rainy season. Subtle differences in composition were observed over time and between areas, probably due to variations in plant species occurrence. Further studies with collections during months of greater precipitation in transects dominated by different mangrove species of the same ecosystem are suggested to assess the overall diversity of mycobiota in these ecosystems.

Los manglares son ecosistemas de transición entre los ambientes terrestres y marinos, y se distinguen por la gran abundancia de animales, plantas y hongos. Aunque los macrohongos se encuentran en diferentes tipos de hábitat, incluidos los manglares, poco se sabe acerca de la estructura de su comunidad y dinámica. Por lo tanto, el objetivo de este estudio fue analizar la diversidad de macrohongos en los manglares de Brasil y su relación con la precipitación y área de recolección. Se realizaron un total de 32 salidas de campo entre 2009 y 2010, y los macrohongos fueron estudiados en cuatro transectos de 250×40m: Timbó y Canal de Santa Cruz en la costa norte y Maracaípe y Ariquindá en la costa sur. Todos los basidiomas encontrados a lo largo de los transectos se colocaron deshidratados en bolsas de papel, y se identificaron con ayuda de la literatura preexistente. Se encontró que las zonas del norte predominantemente presentaron Avicennia schaueriana, mientras Rhizophora mangle domina en transectos del sur. Se recolectaron un total de 275 especímenes y 33 especies, 28 géneros, 14 familias y seis órdenes estuvieron representados. Abundancia y riqueza de especies en general no varió significativamente entre las áreas, pero si varió en el tiempo, siendo mayor durante la estación lluviosa. Se observaron diferencias sutiles en la composición a través del tiempo y entre áreas, probablemente debido a las variaciones en la presencia de las especies de plantas. Otros estudios con recolectas durante los meses de mayor precipitación en transectos dominados por diferentes plan- tas de manglar en el mismo ecosistema son deseables para acceder a la diversidad de la micobiota.

[Community structure of bivalves and gastropods in roots of red mangrove Rhizophora mangle (Rhizophoraceae) in isla Larga, Mochima Bay, Venezuela]. / Estructura comunitaria de bivalvos y gasterópodos en raices del mangle rojo Rhizophora mangle (Rhizophoraceae) en isla Larga, bahía de Mochima, Venezuela.

The Rhizophora mangle roots form a complex ecosystem where a wide range of organisms are permanently established, reproduce, and find refuge. In this study, we assessed the diversity of bivalves and gastropods that inhabit red mangrove roots, in isla Larga, Mochima, Venezuela Sucre state. Bimonthly collections were made from January 2007 to May 2008, in four study areas denominated: South, North, East and West. In each area, five mangrove roots were sampled, and the specimens were obtained. We analyzed a total of 180 roots and a total of 35 bivalve species and 25 gastropod species were found. The most abundant bivalves were: Isognomon alatus, Isognomon bicolor, Ostrea equestris, Crassostrea rhizophorae and Brachidontes exustus; among gastropods, the most common where: Littorina angulifera, (Cymatium pileare and Diodora cayenensis. The months with the highest abundances and number of individuals for both groups were January and July 2007, and March 2008. The mangrove ecosystem in isla Larga, presented a number of individuals and species higher than those reported for other regions in Venezuela and the Caribbean.

Estructura comunitaria de bivalvos y gasterópodos en raíces del mangle rojo Rhizophora mangle (Rhizophoraceae) en isla Larga, bahía de Mochima, Venezuela / Community structure of bivalves and gastropods in roots of red mangrove Rhizophora mangle (Rhizophoraceae) in isla Larga, Mochima Bay, Venezuela

The Rhizophora mangle roots form a complex ecosystem where a wide range of organisms are permanently established, reproduce, and find refuge. In this study, we assessed the diversity of bivalves and gastropods that inhabit red mangrove roots, in isla Larga, Mochima, Venezuela Sucre state. Bimonthly collections were made from January 2007 to May 2008, in four study areas denominated: South, North, East and West. In each area, five mangrove roots were sampled, and the specimens were obtained. We analyzed a total of 180 roots and a total of 35 bivalve species and 25 gastropod species were found. The most abundant bivalves were: Isognomon alatus, Isognomon bicolor, Ostrea equestris, Crassostrea rhizophorae and Brachidontes exustus; among gastropods, the most common where: Littorina angulifera, Cymatium pileare and Diodora cayenensis. The months with the highest abundances and number of individuals for both groups were January and July 2007, and March 2008. The mangrove ecosystem in isla Larga, presented a number of individuals and species higher than those reported for other regions in Venezuela and the Caribbean. Rev. Biol. Trop. 62 (2): 551-565. Epub 2014 June 01.

Las raíces del mangle rojo forman un complejo ecosistema donde se reproducen, refugian y establecen de manera permanente una gran diversidad de organismos. En este estudio, se evaluó la diversidad de bivalvos y gasterópodos que habitan las raíces del mangle rojo Rhizophora mangle, en isla Larga, Bahía de Mochima, estado Sucre Venezuela. Se realizaron recolectas bimensuales desde enero 2007 hasta mayo 2008, en cuatro zonas de estudio denominadas: zona sur, norte, este y oeste. En cada zona se muestrearon cinco raíces de mangle, de donde se obtuvieron los especímenes. Se analizaron un total 180 raíces y se contabilizaron 35 especies de bivalvos y 25 de gasterópodos. Los bivalvos más abundantes fueron: Isognomon alatus, Isognomon bicolor, Ostrea equestris, Crassostrea rhizophorae y Brachidontes exustus, mientras que los gasterópodos más frecuentes: Littorina angulifera, Cymatium pileare y Diodora cayenensis. Los meses donde se observaron las mayores abundancias de especies y número de individuos fueron enero y julio 2007 y marzo 2008. El ecosistema de manglar en isla Larga, presentó un número de individuos y especies superior al reportado en otros trabajos realizados en Venezuela y otras regiones del Caribe.

Wind pollination and propagule formation in Rhizophora mangle L. (Rhizophoraceae): resource or pollination limitation?

Rhizophora mangle is considered as a self-compatible mangrove, and is pollinated by wind and insects. However, there is no information about fruit production by autogamy and agamospermy and on the foraging behavior of its flower visitors. Hence, the present study analyzed the pollination and reproductive systems of R. mangle in a mangrove community in northern Pernambuco, Brazil. Floral morphology, sequence of anthesis, and behavior of flower visitors were described; the proportion of flowers that resulted in mature propagules was also recorded. Autogamy, agamospermy, and wind pollination tests were performed, and a new anemophily index is proposed. The flowers of R. mangle are hermaphrodite, protandric, and have high P/O rate. Flies were observed on flowers only during the male phase, probably feeding on mites that consume pollen. Rhizophora mangle is not agamospermic and its fruit production rate by spontaneous self-pollination is low (2.56%) compared to wind pollination (19.44%). The anemophily index was high 0.98, and thus it was considered as a good indicator. Only 13.79% of the flowers formed mature propagules. The early stages of fruit development are the most critical and susceptible to predation. Rhizophora mangle is, therefore, exclusively anemophilous in the study area and the propagule dispersal seems to be limited by herbivory.