Tifus y laboratorio en la España de posguerra / No disponible

El tifus exantemático padecido de forma epidémica en los años consecutivos a la Guerra Civil fue momento de una peculiar movilización científica en el Instituto y Escuela Nacional de Sanidad que comenzaban su andadura bajo el franquismo, contando con una significativa participación multinacional, desde la Fundación Rockefeller al Instituto Pasteur, que convirtió España en nudo donde se cruzaban las teorías y las prácticas de las escuelas más relevantes en torno a la consecución de una vacuna eficaz. El artículo reconstruye los elementos en dicha movilización y analiza sus resultados. Las carencias informativas del momento, cierta tensión entre los participantes y la rápida evolución de la situación privaron de resultados prácticos inmediatos a la Sanidad española, lo que no puede decirse en lo tocante al recorrido profesional de varios de los científicos funcionarios implicados. La auténtica explotación de resultados de esta experiencia se llevó a cabo en los Estados Unidos años después (AU)

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Lesser known aspects of Ludwik Fleck's (1896-1961) heroic life during World War II.

Professor Ludwik Fleck was a famous scientist and a prominent philosopher. Although his life and work were studied extensively, the Second World War period was a subject of some discussion and controversy. On account of his Jewish origin, he was first arrested and moved from the Lwów ghetto to the 'Laokoon' factory and then imprisoned in KL Auschwitz-Birkenau and in KL Buchenwald. Fleck produced the anti-typhus vaccine in the chemo-bacteriological laboratory in the Jewish Hospital at Kuszewicza Street and in the 'Laokoon' factory in Lwów. During his incarceration in KL Auschwitz-Birkenau, Fleck worked in the camp laboratory in Block 10 carrying out bacteriological studies for the inmates and then was assigned to work in the Wasserman station in Rajsko. From January 1944 Fleck performed routine laboratory tests in Block 50 in KL Buchenwald. Though Fleck had a privileged life in the camp, he participated in the sabotage activities organized by the camp resistance.

[Spotted fever and the invention of its serodiagnosis and vaccination in the Austro-Hungarian army in World War I]. / Das Fleckfieber und die Erfindung seiner Serodiagnose und Impfung bei der k. u. k. Armee im Ersten Weltkrieg.

After description of the medical institutions and epidemiological situations of the Austro-Hungarian army in World War I the provisions against spotted fever focused on louse control are discussed. The letter specified for the army had to be adjusted for the local populations. 1915 in the k.u.k. military service in Galicia Edmund Weil and Arthur Felix cultivated Proteus strains from urine of soldiers with spotted fever. As sera of such patients agglutinated these bacteria in considerable titers the investigators developed the reliable diagnostic "Weil-Felix-Test" used still today. In the same military area and time Rudolf Weigl invented the anal infection of lice. This enabled him to harvest a great amount of louse intestines containing the spotted fever Rickettsiae in their epithelial cells. Lots with defined numbers of intestines were homogenized, sterilized and used with success as vaccine for medical staff. This sort of vaccine still was used in World War II.

[The role of Turkish physicians in the vaccination against typhus during the years of World War I]. / I. dünya savasi yillarinda tifüs asisinin uygulanmasinda turk hekimlerinin rolü.

During the years of World War I, several severe typhus epidemics were seen in Erzurum and nearby cities. A total of 164 health officers, 125 of whom were physicians, struggled against the epidemic in the region but also they lost their lives due to typhus. Vaccination against typhus was one of the means of fighting the epidemic. However, there were some claims that a small group of Turkish physicians injected typhus-contaminated serum into Armenian civilians during World War I, and that this should be accepted as a form of biological warfare against Armenian civilians. The purpose of this article is to set out how, by whom, and on whom, and under what conditions the typhus vaccination was applied in order to reveal the truth in terms of the evidence found in historical documents. The typhus vaccine was prepared from blood taken from febrile patients affected by the disease. After the blood of the patients were defibrinated and inactivated at 60 degrees C for an hour, it was used. As the amount of blood needed to prepare the vaccine was so great, the amount of available vaccine was always insufficient to meet the demand. Hence, the prepared vaccine was only applied to those which had the higher risk of contracting typhus such as physicians and nurses. The vaccine prepared by The Third Army Health Commander Dr. Tevfik Salim was first applied to nine officers, five of whom were physicians, and among whom were Dr. Haydar Cemal and Dr. Salahattin on March 28, 1915 in Hasankale, Erzurum. Furthermore, the same vaccine was applied to people in the vicinity by Dr. Alaattin in Erzurum, Dr. Abdulhalim Asim in Bayburt, Dr. Izak in Sivas and Dr. Mihran in Hasankale. Ali Ihsan Sabis and Fevzi Cakmak, who were high ranking officers, were among those who volunteered to have the vaccination. The Third Army Health Commander Dr. Tevfik Salim ordered that the vaccine should not be applied without blood inactivation. Despite this order, Dr. Hamit Osman, who had a mental illness, applied the vaccination without inactivating the blood to some people. Among those were physicians of the Red Crescent Hospital together with soldiers who were nursing in the hospitals in Erzincan. Dr. Hamdi Suat inactivated the blood by leaving it at -16 degrees C for 24-48 hours, and instead of giving a single dose, he applied three-doses with 3-day-intervals, followed by a one more dose, which he called "the vaccine for absolute immunization" to the same people after 10-23 days. This "vaccine for absolute immunization" was actually typhus-contaminated blood which had not been inactivated. It should be noted that he injected himself with the same form of vaccine. In his article published in German in 1916 and in Turkish in 1917, he stated that he injected "the vaccine for absolute immunization" to some subjects 'condemned to death'. Dr. Haydar Cemal claimed, in a newspaper dated December 23, 1918, that the people reported as subjects 'condemned to death' were indeed Armenians, and that the innocent Armenians marked out for deportation were inoculated with the blood of typhus fever patients, and that he eyewitnessed all these events. As a result of his claims, the Interior Ministry demanded an immediate investigation, and at the end of that investigation it was understood that Dr. Haydar Cemal and Dr. Hamdi Suat had never worked together in Erzincan at the time Dr. Haydar Cemal claimed. All the claims were refuted by the investigating committee and nobody was charged. During a severe typhus epidemic, Turkish physicians injected the typhus vaccine for the purpose of "saving a life from the fire". The typhus vaccine was prepared using the available scientific knowledge of the time. No racial or religious discrimination against the people vaccinated had been proved. According to the sources, the claim that some Turkish physicians used the blood of patients with typhus as a means of biological warfare does not reflect the historical truth.

Rudolph Weigl (1883-1957)--a scientist in Poland in wartime plus ratio quam vis.

Rudolph Weigl gained a high estimation for his spectacular invention of the first efficient vaccine against typhus fever. Although born a German native speaker, he changed into a great Pole with Polish education and upbringing in a patriotic atmosphere. His scientific career developed in the Universities of Lvov, Cracow and Poznan. For him, academic employment was a constant exploration of practical truths and a response to human needs, and this remained a deep obligation during his lifetime. His vaccine saved millions, particularly during World War II. Despite many nominations, he was never awarded the Nobel Prize.

The reading of scientific texts: questions on interpretation and evaluation, with special reference to the scientific writings of Ludwik Fleck.

Ludwik Fleck is remembered for his monograph published in German in 1935. Reissued in 1979 as Genesis and development of a scientific fact Fleck's monograph has been claimed to expound relativistic views of science. Fleck has also been portrayed as a prominent scientist. The description of his production of a vaccine against typhus during World War II, when imprisoned in Buchenwald, is legendary in the scholarly literature. The claims about Fleck's scientific achievements have been justified by referring to his numerous publications in international scientific journals. Though frequently mentioned, these publications have scarcely been studied. The present article discusses differences in interpretation and evaluation of science in relation to the background of the interpreters. For this purpose Fleck's scientific publications have been scrutinized. In conjunction with further sources reflecting the desperate situation at the time in question, the results of the study account for a more restrained picture of Fleck's scientific accomplishments. Furthermore, based on the review of the latter, certain demands characterizing good science could be articulated. The restricted possibilities of those not trained in science or not possessing field specific knowledge, evaluating science are discussed, as are also formal aspects of scientific papers and questions related to research ethics.

[Rudolf Stefan Weigl--scientist and human being]. / Rudolf Stefan Weigl--czlowiek i uczony.

Rudolf Stefan Weigl died in 1957, 45 years ago. This year we are celebrating 120 anniversary of his birthday. He was a great Polish scientist who led research on Rickettsia prowazeki and epidemic typhus. R. Weigl developed a method of R. prowazeki culture in louse gut and elaborated the technology of epidemic typhus vaccine production. He and his co-workers introduced first vaccination of medical staff, people from endemic area in Poland and missionaries working in Asia. He was an international authority on prophylactics and control of rickettsial epidemic typhus.

Hermann Mooser, Typhus, Warsaw 1941.

Hermann Mooser (1891-1971), a Swiss rickettsiologist, sent his friend Peyton Rous (1879-1970) of the Rockefeller Institute (New York) a telegram on November 3, 1941, asking for financial help for the manufacture of typhus vaccine in Zurich for the Warsaw Ghetto. His explanatory letter from November 4 reached Rous too late to have any influence on the negative decision (by the Rockefeller Foundation and the American Red Cross) in this matter. Contrary to Weindling's affirmation Mooser was neither in Warsaw in 1941, nor was he a member of the Swiss Sanitary Missions to the eastern front.

Vacunas contra rickettsias / Vaccines against rickettsias

Las rickettsias son transmitidas por la picadura de garrapatas y ácaros infectados o por la contaminación de la piel o membranas mucosas con heces de piojos o pulgas. La epidemiología se presenta en varias enfermedades: tifo epidémico, tifo murino, tifo escrofular, fiebre manchada de las montañas rocallosas y fiebre Q. En el aspecto histórico de las vacunas anti-rickettsiales, observando retrospectivamente, se concluye que el fracaso de esos intentos -iniciados antes de 1940- no es sorprendente dada la heterogeneidad antigénica de las cepas de esta especie. Los esfuerzos actuales para el desarrollo de las vacunas anti-rickettsiales están enfocados en la clonación de los genes que codifican para la proteína R. prowaseki; producirla mediante la tecnología del DNA recombinante y evaluar la proteína así expresada como probable vacuna. Aunque tales enfoque novedosos son prometedores, la prueba definitiva de eficiencia es la capacidad de la vacuna para proteger humanos expuestos a la infección con rickettsias