Identification of glyphosate resistance in Salsola tragus in north-eastern Oregon.

BACKGROUND: Farmers in the low-rainfall region of eastern Oregon rely on repeated applications of non-selective herbicides, predominately glyphosate, to control Salsola tragus in no-till fallow systems. Reports of poor glyphosate effectiveness have increased in recent years. Reduced efficacy is often attributed to dust, water stress, or generally poor growing conditions during application. Inadequate control also may be the result of the evolution of glyphosate resistance. Therefore, studies were undertaken to determine if glyphosate-resistant S. tragus populations occur in Oregon. RESULTS: Results from dose-response studies confirmed glyphosate resistance in three of 10 Oregon Salsola tragus populations. The ratio I50R /I50S from dose-response curves was, on average, 3.1 for the relative dry biomass per plant and 3.2 for the % of surviving plants per pot in these three populations. Plant mortality at recommended glyphosate doses for the resistant populations was less than 30% 3 weeks after treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Glyphosate resistance in S. tragus highlights the imperative need to diversify weed control strategies to preserve the longevity and sustainability of herbicides in semi-arid cropping systems of the Pacific Northwest. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Higher Novel L-Cys Degradation Activity Results in Lower Organic-S and Biomass in Sarcocornia than the Related Saltwort, Salicornia.

Salicornia and Sarcocornia are almost identical halophytes whose edible succulent shoots hold promise for commercial production in saline water. Enhanced sulfur nutrition may be beneficial to crops naturally grown on high sulfate. However, little is known about sulfate nutrition in halophytes. Here we show that Salicornia europaea (ecotype RN) exhibits a significant increase in biomass and organic-S accumulation in response to supplemental sulfate, whereas Sarcocornia fruticosa (ecotype VM) does not, instead exhibiting increased sulfate accumulation. We investigated the role of two pathways on organic-S and biomass accumulation in Salicornia and Sarcoconia: the sulfate reductive pathway that generates Cys and l-Cys desulfhydrase that degrades Cys to H2S, NH3, and pyruvate. The major function of O-acetyl-Ser-(thiol) lyase (OAS-TL; EC 2.5.1.47) is the formation of l-Cys, but our study shows that the OAS-TL A and OAS-TL B of both halophytes are enzymes that also degrade l-Cys to H2S. This activity was significantly higher in Sarcocornia than in Salicornia, especially upon sulfate supplementation. The activity of the sulfate reductive pathway key enzyme, adenosine 5'-phosphosulfate reductase (APR, EC 1.8.99.2), was significantly higher in Salicornia than in Sarcocornia These results suggest that the low organic-S level in Sarcocornia is the result of high l-Cys degradation rate by OAS-TLs, whereas the greater organic-S and biomass accumulation in Salicornia is the result of higher APR activity and low l-Cys degradation rate, resulting in higher net Cys biosynthesis. These results present an initial road map for halophyte growers to attain better growth rates and nutritional value of Salicornia and Sarcocornia.

The role of antioxidant responses on the tolerance range of extreme halophyte Salsola crassa grown under toxic salt concentrations.

Salsola crassa (Amaranthaceae) is an annual halophytic species and naturally grows in arid soils that are toxic to most plants. In order to study the effects of salinity on their antioxidant system and to determine the tolerance range against salt stress, S. crassa seeds were grown with different concentrations of NaCl (0, 250, 500, 750, 1000, 1250 and 1500mM) for short (15d) and long-term (30d). Results showed that growth (RGR), water content (RWC) and osmotic potential (ΨΠ) decreased and, proline content (Pro) increased at prolonged salt treatment. Unlike K(+) and Ca(2+) contents, S. crassa highly accumulated Na(+) and Cl(-) contents. Chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm) only decreased in response to 1500mM NaCl at 30d. No salt stimulation of superoxide anion radical (O2(•-)) content was observed in plants treated with the range of 0-500mM NaCl during the experimental period. NaCl increased superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity depending on intensities of Mn-SOD and Fe-SOD isozymes except in 1500mM NaCl-treated plants at 30d. In contrast to catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POX) activity increased throughout the experiment. Also, salinity caused an increase in glutathione reductase (GR) and glutathione peroxidase (GPX) and decreased in ascorbate peroxidase (APX), monodehydroascorbate reductase (MDHAR) and dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR) at 15d. Both total ascorbate (tAsA) and glutathione (tGlut) contents significantly increased in treated plants with 1000-1500mM NaCl at 15d. After 0-1000mM NaCl stress, H2O2 and TBARS contents were similar to control groups at 15d, which were consistent with the increased antioxidant activity (POX, GR and GPX). However, H2O2 content was more pronounced at 30d. Therefore, S. crassa exhibited inductions in lipid peroxidation (TBARS content) in response to extreme salt concentrations. These results suggest that S. crassa is tolerant to salt-induced damage at short-term treatments as well as extreme salt concentrations.

Physiological responses and tolerance mechanisms to Pb in two xerophils: Salsola passerina Bunge and Chenopodium album L.

Lead (Pb) has great toxicity to human beings and other livings. Although there are varied ways to rehabilitate the Pb contaminated area, phytoremediation of Pb pollution in arid lands is still a difficult task, it is therefore urgent to find and identify Pb tolerant plants in arid areas. The physiological responses and tolerance mechanisms to Pb stress (expressed as the Pb concentration, e.g., 0, 50, 150, 300, 600, 800, 1000 mg/L) were investigated for the xerophils Salsola passerina Bunge and Chenopodium album L. Results indicated that S. passerina exhibited higher Pb tolerance than Ch. album in terms of the seed germination rate, bio-activities of SOD and POD, and lower MDA production. There were two ways for S. passerina to reduce Pb toxicity in organism level, e.g., cell wall precipitation and state transfer of free Pb into anchorage. These findings demonstrate that S. passerina is a Pb tolerant species and may have potential application in phytoremediation of Pb contaminated arid lands.

Salt-driven interactions between Pistacia lentiscus and Salsola inermis.

BACKGROUND, AIM, AND SCOPE: It can be learned from the Pistacia spp. germplasm collection (http://www.bgu.ac.il/pistacia) that the growth of Salsola inermis is inhibited in the vicinity of the evergreen Pistacia lentiscus, but not in the surroundings of the deciduous Pistacia atlantica and Pistacia chinensis. Irrigation of trees during the summer months increases soil salinity around the trees. It was therefore hypothesized that inhibition of S. inermis around P. lentiscus is related to depletion of salt in the vicinity of the latter species. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A multi-approach experimental scheme was carried out which included soil edaphic characterization and germination tests. To test salt tolerance of P. lentiscus, plants were grown in a hydroponic system for a month in medium containing NaCl, while physiological and growth parameters were measured. RESULTS: Conductivity measurements in summer, during the growth season of S. inermis, indicated that soil salinity beneath deciduous Pistacia trees was significantly higher than that below P. lentiscus. Germination of S. inermis seeds on filter paper moistened with P. lentiscus low-conductivity soil filtrate was twice as high as that of the deciduous trees high-conductivity soil filtrates. Nevertheless, fresh and dry weights of mature S. inermis growing next to P. atlantica and P. chinensis were 2.9 to 4.8 times higher than those of plants growing in the vicinity of P. lentiscus. In a hydroponic system, no significant differences were found in growth parameters and stomatal conductance between P. lentiscus growing in control and salt treatments. It was therefore proposed that salt depletion in the vicinity of P. lentiscus inhibits the growth, but not germination, of S. inermis thus confirming the halophylic characteristics of this plant. DISCUSSION: The nature of Salsola-Pistacia interactions cannot be explained by allelopathic effects; hence, plausible salt-driven interactions were considered. Our data showed that S. inermis accumulated salt and has halophytic characteristics. Interestingly, germination of S. inermis was inhibited in medium containing salt, but the salt was obligatory for further growth, development, and fast biomass production. These results explained the observation of large biomass accumulation in the more saline soil around the deciduous P. atlantica and P. chinensis and the lack of development in the salt-depleted soil around the salt-tolerant accumulator P. lentiscus. CONCLUSIONS: Soil salinity around Pistacia trees critically affects the growth of S. inermis. Inhibition of S. inermis growth, but not germination, around the evergreen P. lentiscus, stems from the latter's ability to deplete salt from its surroundings. The results indicated that P. lentiscus is able to tolerate and accumulate salt, which we assume contributes to its wide distribution along the Mediterranean coast in Israel. Recommendations and perspectives While the phytoremediation potential of Salsola spp. has been explored to some extent, this of P. lentiscus has not been tested and proven before. The results suggest that the evergreen perennial salt-tolerant P. lentiscus can be recommended for horticulture purposes and soil stabilization in relatively saline environments.

Role of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid on lead uptake and translocation by tumbleweed (salsola kali L.).

Tumbleweed plants (Salsola kali L.) grown in agar and liquid media demonstrated a high capacity to accumulate Pb in their different parts without affecting biomass. Whereas shoot elongation and biomass were not significantly affected by high tissue concentrations of Pb, root growth was significantly affected relative to controls. Roots, stems, and leaves demonstrated Pb concentrations of 31,000, 5,500, and 2,100 mg/kg dry weight, respectively, when plants were grown in the agar medium containing 80 mg Pb/L. Application of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) to Pb-contaminated media dramatically reduced the total acquisition of Pb from both types of media. However, EDTA significantly increased the translocation of Pb from roots to the aerial parts, as evidenced by a multifold increase (23- and 155-fold for agar and liquid media, respectively) in the translocation concentration factor. The concentration of the antioxidant thiol compounds significantly increased (p < 0.05) in plants grown with uncomplexed Pb treatments relative to control plants. Scanning-electron microscopy and electron dispersive x-ray spectroscopic evaluation of leaf samples demonstrated an interesting pattern of Pb translocation in the presence or absence of EDTA. Large Pb crystals were found across the leaf tissues (palisade, spongy parenchyma, and conducting tissues) in the absence of EDTA. Lead nanoparticles also were seen when plants were grown in Pb-EDTA solution. Ultramicroscopic features of tumbleweed provide clear evidence for the unrestricted conduction of Pb from the root to the aerial parts, and this property makes the plant a good candidate for phytoremediation.

Production of low-molecular weight thiols as a response to cadmium uptake by tumbleweed (Salsola kali).

Tumbleweed (Salsola kali) is a desert plant species that has shown to be a potential Cd hyperaccumulator. In this study, the production of low-molecular weight thiols (LMWT) as a response to cadmium stress was determined in hydroponically grown seedlings exposed to 0, 45, 89, and 178 microM Cd(2+). The treatment of 89 microM Cd(2+) was tested alone and supplemented with an equimolar concentration of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) to determine the effect of this chelating agent on Cd uptake and thiols production. After 6 days of growth, the Cd concentration in plant tissues was determined by using inductively coupled plasma/optical emission spectroscopy (ICP/OES). Results indicated that Cd uptake by plants was concentration-dependent. Plants treated with 178 microM Cd(2+), had 10+/-0.62, 9.7+/-1.4, and 4.3+/-0.83 mmol Cd kg(-1) dry tissue in roots, stems, and leaves, respectively. The production of thiols was dependent on Cd concentration in tissues. According to the stoichiometry performed, plants treated with Cd concentrations up to 178 muM produced 0.131+/-0.02, and 0.087+/-0.012 mmol SH per mmol Cd present in roots and stems. In leaves, the production of thiols decreased at the highest Cd concentration tested. Thus, up to 89 microM Cd in the media, 0.528+/-0.004 mmol SH per mmol Cd in leaf tissues were produced. EDTA equimolar to Cd reduced both Cd uptake and thiols production. Catalase activity (CAT) (EC 1.11.1.6) was significantly depressed at the lowest Cd concentration. None of the conditions tested affected biomass or plant elongation.

Cadmium uptake and translocation in tumbleweed (Salsola kali), a potential Cd-hyperaccumulator desert plant species: ICP/OES and XAS studies.

Cadmium is a heavy metal, which, even at low concentrations, can be highly toxic to the growth and development of both plants and animals. Plant species vary extensively in their tolerance to excess cadmium in a growth medium and very few cadmium-tolerant species have been identified. In this study, tumbleweed plants (Salsola kali) grown in an agar-based medium with 20 mgl(-1) of Cd(II) did not show phytotoxicity, and their roots had the most biomass (4.5 mg) (P < 0.05) compared to the control plants (2.7 mg) as well as other treated plants. These plants accumulated 2696, 2075, and 2016 mg Cd kg(-1) of dry roots, stems, and leaves, respectively. The results suggest that there is no restricted cadmium movement in tumbleweed plants. In addition, the amount of Cd found in the dry leaf tissue suggests that tumbleweed could be considered as potential cadmium hyperaccumulating species. X-ray absorption spectroscopy studies demonstrated that in roots, cadmium was bound to oxygen while in stems and leaves, the metal was attached to oxygen and sulfur groups. This might imply that some small organic acids are responsible for Cd transport from roots to stems and leaves. In addition, it might be possible that the plant synthesizes phytochelatins in the stems, later coordinating the absorbed cadmium for transport and storage in cell structures. Thus, it is possible that in the leaves, Cd either exists as a Cd-phytochelatin complex or bound to cell wall structures. Current studies are being performed in order to elucidate the proposed hypothesis.