Identification and analysis of UGT genes associated with triterpenoid saponin in soapberry (Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn.).

BACKGROUND: Soapberry (Sapindus mukorossi) is an economically important multifunctional tree species. Triterpenoid saponins have many functions in soapberry. However, the types of uridine diphosphate (UDP) glucosyltransferases (UGTs) involved in the synthesis of triterpenoid saponins in soapberry have not been clarified. RESULTS: In this study, 42 SmUGTs were identified in soapberry, which were unevenly distributed on 12 chromosomes and had sequence lengths of 450 bp to 1638 bp, with an average of 1388 bp. The number of amino acids in SmUGTs was 149 to 545, with an average of 462. Most SmUGTs were acidic and hydrophilic unstable proteins, and their secondary structures were mainly α-helices and random coils. All had conserved UDPGT and PSPG-box domains. Phylogenetic analysis divided them into four subclasses, which glycosylated different carbon atoms. Prediction of cis-acting elements suggested roles of SmUGTs in plant development and responses to environmental stresses. The expression patterns of SmUGTs differed according to the developmental stage of fruits, as determined by transcriptomics and RT-qPCR. Co-expression network analysis of SmUGTs and related genes/transcription factors in the triterpenoid saponin synthesis pathway was also performed. The results indicated potential roles for many transcription factors, such as SmERFs, SmGATAs and SmMYBs. A correlation analysis showed that 42 SmUGTs were crucial in saponin synthesis in soapberry. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest optimal targets for manipulating glycosylation in soapberry triterpenoid saponin biosynthesis; they also provide a theoretical foundation for further evaluation of the functions of SmUGTs and analyses of their biosynthetic mechanisms.

Effects of Sapindus mukorossi Seed Oil on Bone Healing Efficiency: An Animal Study.

Natural products have attracted great interest in the development of tissue engineering. Recent studies have demonstrated that unsaturated fatty acids found in natural plant seed oil may exhibit positive osteogenic effects; however, few in vivo studies have focused on the use of plant seed oil for bone regeneration. The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of seed oil found in Sapindus mukorossi (S. mukorossi) on the osteogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells and bone growth in artificial bone defects in vivo. In this study, Wharton-jelly-derived mesenchymal stem cells (WJMSCs) were co-cultured with S. mukorossi seed oil. Cellular osteogenic capacity was assessed using Alizarin Red S staining. Real-time PCR was carried out to evaluate ALP and OCN gene expression. The potential of S. mukorossi seed oil to enhance bone growth was assessed using an animal model. Four 6 mm circular defects were prepared at the parietal bone of New Zealand white rabbits. The defects were filled with hydrogel and hydrogel-S. mukorossi seed oil, respectively. Quantitative analysis of micro-computed tomography (Micro-CT) and histological images was conducted to compare differences in osteogenesis between oil-treated and untreated samples. Although our results showed no significant differences in viability between WJMSCs treated with and without S. mukorossi seed oil, under osteogenic conditions, S. mukorossi seed oil facilitated an increase in mineralized nodule secretion and upregulated the expression of ALP and OCN genes in the cells (p < 0.05). In the animal study, both micro-CT and histological evaluations revealed that new bone formation in artificial bone defects treated with S. mukorossi seed oil were nearly doubled compared to control defects (p < 0.05) after 4 weeks of healing. Based on these findings, it is reasonable to suggest that S. mukorossi seed oil holds promise as a potential candidate for enhancing bone healing efficiency in bone tissue engineering.

Physiology and transcriptome of Sapindus mukorossi seeds at different germination stages.

Sapindus mukorossi has a wide distribution range, high application value, and broad developmental potential. Previous studies have mostly focused on the medicinal and economic value of soapberry; however, few studies have been conducted on its seed germination. This study measured the physiological indicators and hormone content of soapberry seeds at different germination stages and preliminarily determined that abscisic acid (ABA) and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) are the key hormones that affect the germination of soapberry seeds. Both Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG enrichment) analyses detected hormone transduction pathways, further confirming the key role of plant hormones in the germination process of soapberry seeds. Through transcriptome analysis, we speculated that CYP707A and IPA are key genes in the ABA and IAA synthesis pathways, respectively. This study revealed the close relationship between plant hormones and soapberry seed germination and provided new ideas for further exploration of the germination mechanism of soapberry seeds.

Efficacy of Adjunctive Fotoenticine Photodynamic Therapy and Sapindus mukorossi Therapy on Clinical, Radiographic, and Cytokine Profile of Diabetics with Peri-Implantitis.

Objective: To evaluate effectiveness of Fotoenticine (FTC)-mediated photodynamic therapy (PDT) and Sapindus mukorossi (SM) as adjunct to mechanical debridement (MD) on peri-implant clinical parameters and levels of proinflammatory cytokines among diabetics. Background: FTC has exhibited robust photodynamic impact against Streptococcus mutans (i.e., an established caries-associated bacterium); however, its efficacy against periodontal pathogens is not known. Methods: One hundred six diabetics with peri-implantitis were randomly categorized into three groups: Group I consisted of 37 participants who were treated with only MD; group II comprised 35 participants who were treated with FTC-mediated PDT, in addition to MD; and group III consisted of 34 participants who were treated with SM, in addition to MD. Peri-implant clinical parameters [plaque index (PI), bleeding on probing (BOP), and probing depth (PD)] and radiographic outcomes [crestal bone loss (CBL)] (PI, BOP, and PD), together with peri-implant sulcular fluid (PISF) interleukin (IL)-1ß and IL-6 levels were measured at baseline and 6-month follow-up. Results: In group I (n = 37; 24 males +13 females), group II (n = 35; 20 males +15 females), and group III (n = 34; 17 males +17 females), the mean age of participants was 54.3 ± 4.6, 52.0 ± 5.5, and 50.8 ± 4.5 years, respectively. Significant improvement was observed in the scores of peri-implant PI (p = 0.01), BOP (p = 0.01), and PD (p = 0.02) at the 6-month follow-up among all study groups. Significant improvement in peri-implant CBL among group I subjects at 6-month follow-up compared to baseline (p < 0.05) was observed. PISF levels of IL-1ß and IL-6 improved at 6 months. Conclusions: As an adjunct to conventional MD, FTC-mediated PDT and SM might be used as potential therapeutic modalities among diabetics with peri-implantitis.

Evaluation of antitumoral and antioxidant activities of the hydroalcoholic extract and fractions obtained from the fruit pericarp of Sapindus saponaria L.

The fruits of Sapindus saponaria L., popularly known as 'saboeiro', have been used in medicine. This study evaluated the antioxidant and antitumor activities of the hydroethanolic extract (HAE) and fractions obtained from the fruit pericarp of S. saponaria. The HAE was obtained from the S. saponaria fruit pericarp by maceration; this was followed by fractionation using reversed-phase solid-phase extraction, resulting in fractions enriched with acyclic sesquiterpenic oligoglycosides (ASOG) and saponins (SAP1, and SAP2), confirmed by mass spectrometry with electrospray ionization (ESI-QTOF-MS). The greatest citotoxic activity was observed with the SAP1 fraction against the CaCo2 cell line with a GI50 of 8.1 µg mL-1, while the SAP2 fraction had a GI50 of 13.6 µg mL-1 against CaCo2. The HAE demonstrated the greatest antioxidant activity. S. saponaria has potential therapeutic use in the pharmaceutical industry as a natural anti-oxidant or antitumor product.

Development and stability of intimate soap formulations using Sapindus saponaria L. extract as a natural surfactant.

The use of synthetic surfactants reflects the high demand in the hygiene and cleaning sector for products with low-cost and good-effectiveness. These ingredients are the main components of intimate soap formulations. Sapindus saponaria L. is a plant rich in saponins, with the potential to be used as a natural surfactant due to its amphiphilic character and its foam-forming properties. Therefore, this study aimed to develop intimate soap formulations using S. saponaria extract as a natural surfactant and analyze its stability and surfactant characteristics. Preliminary and accelerated stability parameters, rheological characteristics, surface tension, foaming power, foam stability and emulsification potential were evaluated. The formulations were stable at a pH suitable for the intimate region (4.0 to 4.5), the presence of S. saponaria extract provided greater reduction of surface tension, better foaming and foam stability and greater emulsification power, desirable characteristics for an intimate liquid soap. These results demonstrate that the incorporation of S. saponaria extract into liquid soap formulations is an excellent option as a natural surfactant to reduce the use of synthetic anionic surfactants such as SLES.

Spatial sorting promotes rapid (mal)adaptation in the red-shouldered soapberry bug after hurricane-driven local extinctions.

Predicting future evolutionary change is a critical challenge in the Anthropocene as geographic range shifts and local extinction emerge as hallmarks of planetary change. Hence, spatial sorting-a driver of rapid evolution in which dispersal-associated traits accumulate along expanding range edges and within recolonized habitats-might be of growing importance in ecology and conservation. We report on the results of a natural experiment that monitored recolonization of host plants by the seed-feeding, red-shouldered soapberry bug, Jadera haematoloma, after local extinctions from catastrophic flooding in an extreme hurricane. We tested the contribution of spatial sorting to generate rapid and persistent evolution in dispersal traits, as well as in feeding traits unrelated to dispersal. Long-winged dispersal forms accumulated in recolonized habitats and due to genetic correlation, mouthparts also became longer and this shift persisted across generations. Those longer mouthparts were probably adaptive on one host plant species but maladaptive on two others based on matching the optimum depth of seeds within their host fruits. Moreover, spatial sorting eroded recently evolved adaptive divergence in mouthpart length among all host-associated biotypes, an outcome pointing to profound practical consequences of the extreme weather event for local adaptation, population resilience and evolutionary futures.

Chinese sapindaceous tree species (Sapindus mukorosii) exhibits lead tolerance and long-term phytoremediation potential for moderately contaminated soils.

Heavy metal pollution in metropolitan soils poses significant risks to human health and the entire ecosystem. Effective mitigation strategies and technologies are crucial for addressing these environmental issues. Fast-growing trees are an essential part of phytoremediation projects all over the world and provide long-term ecological benefits to mankind. This study assessed the lead tolerance and phytoremediation potential of a fast-growing soapberry tree species (Sapindus mukorossi) in moderately contaminated soil. Two independent experiments were conducted to assess its tolerance at (i) germination level and (ii) prolonged growth stage. In the germination experiments, seeds were exposed to lead (II) nitrate Pb (NO3)2 at various concentrations (0, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, 300, 400 and 500 µM) for 120 days. Results showed significant differences in germination time, germination index, seedling vigor index, energy of germination, final germination, germination inhibition, seedling height and root/shoot weight compared to the control experiments. In the prolonged growth experiments, seedlings were grown for six months in soils amended/spiked with different Pb concentrations (T0 = 0, T1 = 20, T2 = 50, T3 = 100, T4 = 150 and T5 = 200 mg kg-1 soil) and their biomass was determined. The highest biomass achieved in six months (T0: 12.62 g plant-1), followed by (T1: 12.33 g plant-1), (T2: 12.42 g plant-1), (T3: 11.86 g plant-1), (T4: 10.86 g plant-1) and (T5: 10.06 g plant-1) respectively. S. mukorossi showed no visible signs of Pb toxicity over a six-month period. During six months of exposure, the total Pb content in S. mucrossi tissues were classified as roots > leaves > stems. The highest cumulative absorption of Pb occurred between the fourth and fifth months of exposure. Maximum transfer factor (TF) was detected during the fourth month ranging from 0.888 to 1.012 for the different Pb concentrations. Furthermore, the growth behavior, lead accumulation, bioconcentration factors (BCF) and tolerance index (TI) indicated that S. mucrossi may tolerate moderate Pb concentrations for longer periods. These findings suggest that S. mukorossi may be deployed for long-term phytoremediation coupled with urban forest applications in the future.

Phytophagous insects and natural enemies on Sapindus saponaria L. (Sapindales: Sapindaceae) plants fertilized with or without dehydrated sewage sludge.

Management programs and efficient techniques are necessary to recover degraded ecosystems. The sewage sludge is rich in nitrogen (N) and with the potential to fertilize Sapindus saponaria L. (Sapinales: Sapindaceae), used in the recovery of degraded areas; this can affect the insect fauna. The study's objective was to evaluate, for 24 months, the abundance of chewing insects, dipterans, pollinators, and predators on S. saponaria plants fertilized with or without dehydrated sewage sludge in a degraded area. The experimental design was completely randomized (with the same characteristics) with two treatments (with or without dehydrated sewage sludge) and 24 replicates, each with one plant. The abundance of Anastrepha sp. (Tephritidae), Cerotoma sp. (Chrysomelidae), Curculionidae, Musca domestica L. (Muscidae), Mantis religiosa L. (Mantodea: Mantidae), Oxyopidae, Salticidae, Tettigoniidae (Orthoptera), and Teudis sp. (Anyphaenidae) was higher on fertilized plants. The abundances of Teudis sp. and Tmarus sp. (Thomisidae) and M. religiosa and Teudis sp. were positively correlated with chewing insects and Diptera, respectively. The population increase of insects and spiders on S. saponaria plants fertilized with dehydrated sewage sludge (bigger crowns) has shown to be suitable for recovering degraded areas with a higher number of niches and better food quality, improving the ecological indices of the area.

Use of final irrigant potassium titanyl phosphate laser; Sapindus Mukorossi and Fotoenticine on the bond values of zirconia post-to-canal dentin.

AIMS: Assessment of the efficacy of final root canal irrigants Sapindus mukorossi (SM), Potassium titanyl phosphate laser (KTPL), and Fotoenticine (FTC) on the push-out bond strength (PBS) of zirconia post. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The root canal procedure was initiated using the 10 K file and the working length was determined on single-rooted human premolar teeth after decoration. The canals were then enlarged using ProTaper universal system and filled using single cone gutta-percha (GP) and AH Plus resin sealer. Post space was prepared by removing 10 mm of GP from the canal. All the teeth were then allocated into four groups based on the final irrigating regime used (n = 10) Group 1: 5.25% NaOCl+17% EDTA, Group 2: 5.25% NaOCl + KTPL, Group 3: 5.25% NaOCl + FTC and Group 4: 5.25% NaOCl+ SM. Zirconia posts were cemented in the canal space. The specimens were sectioned and implanted in auto-polymerizing acrylic resin. A universal testing machine and stereomicroscope at 40x magnification were used for PBS and failure mode analysis. ANOVA and Tukey post hoc test were used to make group comparisons(p = 0.05). RESULTS: Group 4 (5.25% NaOCl+ SM) coronal section displayed the highest PBS (9.29±0.24 MPa). However, group 3 (5.25% NaOCl+ FTC) apical third (4.08±0.14 MPa) showed the lowest bond values. Group 2 (5.25% NaOCl+ KTP laser) and Group 3 at all three-thirds unveiled no significant difference in PBS(p>0.05). However, Group 1 (5.25% NaOCl+17%EDTA) and Group 4 displayed comparable outcomes of bond strength(p>0.05) CONCLUSION: Sapindus mukorossi has the ability to be used as a final root canal irrigant alternative to EDTA. However, future studies are still required to conclude the outcomes of existing research.

Comparative evaluation of Sapindus Mukorossi extract with 17% EDTA on smear layer removal in various parts of the tooth root.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to compare the effectiveness of an experimental root canal irrigant and 17% Ethylene-di-amine tetra acetic acid for removal of the smear layer in the coronal, middle and apical portions of the root canal. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Ninety human single rooted maxillary and mandibular teeth were selected for this study. The teeth were randomly divided into two experimental groups and one control group as follows: Group A (Ethanolic extract of Sapindus Mukorossi), Group B (17% EDTA), and Group C (Distilled water). The root canals of all three groups were prepared with stainless steel K-files by means of the standard step-back technique and irrigated with 5.25% sodium hypo chloride. The teeth were decoronated, following the irrigation and divided longitudinally into two-halves and visualized using scanning electron microscope (SEM) for the amount of smear layer present utilizing the three-point score system. The observations were noted both before and after the treatment. Nonparametric tests were applied for the comparison and p-value ⩽ 0.05 was considered as statistically significant. RESULTS: It was evident from that smear layer was completely removed in coronal portion of 27 out of 30 teeth in-group A. For middle and apical areas of group A, 24 and 19 teeth showed complete smear layer removal. In-group B it was found that there were 24, 21, and 3 teeth at coronal, middle and apical, areas respectively where smear layer were completely absent. Intra group comparison showed a significant difference (p = 0.002) in smear layer removal was found for group A at coronal, middle and apical thirds. Similarly, a significant difference (p = 0.001) was also found for group B; however heavy smear layer was found among the three parts of the canal for group C. CONCLUSIONS: Ethanolic extract of Sapindus Mukorossi have higher effectiveness in removing the smear layer from the root canal in comparison to 17% EDTA.

Influence of Sapindus mukorossi extract in comparison to 17% EDTA as final root canal irrigant on the sealer penetration and microleakage of dentinal tubules.

OBJECTIVE: The study evaluated the effect of Sapindus mukorossi (SM) extract as a final root canal irrigant on sealer penetration (SP) in dentinal tubules and microleakage. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Samples were selected based on inclusion and exclusion criteria. An access opening in all samples was performed and the working length was decided using pro taper for canal finishing along with constant irrigation. Specimens were randomly divided into 3 groups. Group 1 was irrigated with 3 ml of 17% EDTA; group 2 was irrigated with SM irrigant and group 3 samples were irrigated with 0.9% saline. After obturation, samples were vertically placed in 1% methylene blue dye cut in half longitudinally, and viewed under a stereomicroscope. Analysis of SP in the dentinal tubule was assessed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). For microleakage assessment, mean and standard deviation were reported and One-Way ANOVA was applied. SP was compared using Kruskal-Wallis' test. For inspecting the interaction between SM/EDTA and NaOCl, Fisher's exact test was applied. No statistically significant difference between microleakage in any of the tested groups was observed. The control group showed minimum leakage as compared to EDTA and SM. RESULTS: The results displayed that there was no significant difference, (p=0.67), between dentinal tubule SP at 2 mm. A significant difference between dentinal tubule SP among groups at 5 mm was observed (p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: SM ethanolic extract showed comparable outcomes of smear layer removal and sealer penetration to 17% EDTA, as a final irrigant in root canal cleaning. Therefore, SM has the potential to be used as an adjuvant final irrigant in conjunction with NaOCl.

Effectiveness of Morinda citrofolia, Sapindus mukorossi, and curcumin used in curry spice, to the radicular canal irrigant in improving bond integrity of glass fiber post.

AIM: Evaluation of the push-out bond strength (PBS) of glass fiber reinforced post (GFRP) bonded to root dentin after canal disinfection using food-based root canal irrigants i.e., Curcumin photosensitizer (CP), Riboflavin photosensitizer (RFP), Morinda ctrifolia juice (MCJ) and Sapindus mukorossi (SM) along with MTAD as a final irrigant. MATERIAL METHODS: Fifty human single-rooted premolar teeth were decoronated. Endodontic preparation was performed along with 2.25% sodium hypochlorite NaOCl solution followed by EDTA solution. Canals were dried and obturated followed by post-space preparation by removing GP. Specimens were allocated into five groups based on different food-based disinfection regimes (n = 10). Group 1: 2.25% NaOCl + MTAD (Control), Group 2: 6% MCJ + MTAD, Group 3: SM + MTAD, Group 4: CP + MTAD and Group 5: RFP + MTAD. All GFRP were bonded to radicular dentin. Root sectioning was performed followed by PBS and failure analysis using a universal testing machine (UTM) and stereomicroscope respectively. The data were analyzed using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) test and the Post Hoc Tukey HSD test (p = 0.05). RESULTS: Samples disinfected with(MCJ+MTAD) at coronal third demonstrated maximum PBS (9.41 ± 0.51 MPa). However, the apical third of group 5 (RFP + MTAD) exhibited the minimum values (4.06 ± 0.23 MPa). Intergroup comparison analysis unveiled that group 2 (MCJ +MTAD) and group 3 (SM+MTAD) displayed comparable outcomes of PBS at all three-thirds. Similarly, samples in group 1 (2.25% NaOCl + MTAD), group 4 (CP + MTAD), and group 5 (RFP + MTAD) exhibited comparable PBS. CONCLUSION: Fruit-based irrigants Morinda citrifolia and Sapindus mukorossi have the potential to be used as root canal irrigants with a positive influence on bond strength.

Spatial distribution, ecological indices and interactions of arthropods on Sapindus saponaria (Sapindaceae) plants.

Sapindus saponaria L. (Sapindaceae) is a pioneer species used in programs to recover degraded areas. The trees also assist in the pest control of some insects due to the composition of saponins on their leaves. In addition, these chemical components are important to pharmaceutical product production. The objective was to evaluate the impact of spatial distribution, indices and ecological relationship of arthropods on S. saponaria leaves to preserve the balance of biodiversity. Aggregated distribution of arthropods was observed; the numbers of phytophagous arthropods were higher on the adaxial leaf face than on the abaxial part. Only Aleyrodidae (Hemiptera) had a higher presence on the abaxial leaf face of S. saponaria saplings. Abundance, diversity, and species richness of natural enemies correlated positively with phytophagous and pollinators insects. On the other hand, the number of Lyriomyza sp. mines correlated negatively with Pseudomyrmex termitarius (Smith) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). All this information can assist and guide integrated pest management programs.

Comparison Of An Experimental Root Canal Irrigant (Sapindus Mukorossi) And Ethylenediaminetetraacetic Acid On Microhardness Of Human Dentin.

BACKGROUND: The treatment of infected root canals is one of the most essential areas in dentistry. The endodontic therapy comprises of a sequence of steps that includes the purging of disease and infectious tissues from the root canal system. The objective of the study is to compare the effect of an experimental herbal root canal irrigant (Sapindus mukorossi) and Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, on the micro hardness of human dentin. METHODS: Ninety single rooted teeth were collected displayed intact external morphology the selected teeth were than divided randomly into 3 groups (n=30); 1 control and 2 experimental groups: Group A consisted of specimen treated with Ethanolic extract of Sapindus mukorossi. Group B consisted of specimen treated with 17% Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid and Group C (control group) consisted of specimen of roots were sectioned immersed in distilled water. After the removal of crowns, the roots were sectioned embedded in the polymer resin leaving the root dentine exposed, the micro hardness was determined. Then, the samples from each group were treated with respective irrigant solution for 15 minutes and then observation regarding the micro hardness were noted again by using Vickers micro hardness tester. Analysis of data were obtained by application of Wilcoxon signed rank test. RESULTS: The study revealed that there was no significant difference noted in dentin microhardness of group "A" sample after dipping in experimental irrigant solution (Sapindus mukorossi). However, the study found significant difference in context of decrease in dentin microhardness after dipping a sample in a group "B" irrigant solution (17% Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid). CONCLUSIONS: In order to preserve the strength of dentin that will ultimately be beneficial for increase in survival of teeth in function, probably the herbal extract of Sapindus mukorossi would be better candidate for future endeavour and presented as an economic and effective alternative amongst root canal irrigants.

The Treatment Efficiency and Microbiota Analysis of Sapindus mukorossi Seed Oil on the Ligature-Induced Periodontitis Rat Model.

Periodontitis is a common oral disease mainly caused by bacterial infection and inflammation of the gingiva. In the prevention or treatment of periodontitis, anti-bacterial agents are used to inhibit pathogen growth, despite increasing levels of bacterial resistance. Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn (SM) seed oil has proven anti-bacterial and anti-inflammation properties. However, the possibility of using this plant to prevent or treat periodontitis has not been reported previously. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of SM oil on experimental periodontitis in rats by using micro-CT and microbiota analysis. The distance between cementoenamel junction (CEJ) and alveolar bone crest (ABC) on the sagittal micro-CT slide showed that total bone loss (TBL) was significantly lower in CEJ-ABC distances between SM oil and SM oil-free groups on Day 14. Histology data also showed less alveolar bone resorption, a result consistent result with micro-CT imaging. The microbiota analyzed at phylum and class levels were compared between the SM oil and SM oil-free groups on Day 7 and Day 14. At the phylum level, Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, and Actinobacteria were the dominant bacterium. Firmicutes in box plot analysis was significantly less in the SM oil group than in the SM oil-free group on Day 7. At the class level, Bacteroidia, Gammaproteobacteria, Bacilli, Clostridia, and Erysipelotrichia were the dominant bacteria. The bacteria composition proportion of Bacilli, Clostridiay, and Erysipelotrichia could be seen in the SM oil group significantly less than in t SM oil-free group on Day 7. Overall, the present results show that topical application of SM oil can reduce bone resorption and change bacteria composition in the ligature-induced periodontitis model. According to these results, it is reasonable to suggest SM oil as a potential material for preventing oral disease.

Metabolome and Transcriptome Analysis Reveals the Transcriptional Regulatory Mechanism of Triterpenoid Saponin Biosynthesis in Soapberry (Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn.).

Soapberry (Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn.) pericarps are rich in valuable bioactive triterpenoid saponins. However, the saponin content dynamics and the molecular regulatory network of saponin biosynthesis in soapberry pericarps remain largely unclear. Here, we performed combined metabolite profiling and transcriptome analysis to identify saponin accumulation kinetic patterns, investigate gene networks, and characterize key candidate genes and transcription factors (TFs) involved in saponin biosynthesis in soapberry pericarps. A total of 54 saponins were tentatively identified, including 25 that were differentially accumulated. Furthermore, 49 genes putatively involved in sapogenin backbone biosynthesis and some candidate genes assumed to be responsible for the backbone modification, including 41 cytochrome P450s and 45 glycosyltransferases, were identified. Saponin-specific clusters/modules were identified by Mfuzz clustering and weighted gene coexpression network analysis, and one TF-gene regulatory network underlying saponin biosynthesis was proposed. The results of yeast one-hybrid assay and electrophoretic mobility shift assay suggested that SmbHLH2, SmTCP4, and SmWRKY27 may play important roles in the triterpenoid saponin biosynthesis by directly regulating the transcription of SmCYP71D-3 in the soapberry pericarp. Overall, these findings provide valuable information for understanding the molecular regulatory mechanism of saponin biosynthesis, enriching the gene resources, and guiding further research on triterpenoid saponin accumulation in soapberry pericarps.

A comparative analysis of saponin-enriched fraction from Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke, Sapindus mukorossi (Gaertn) and Chlorophytum borivilianum (Santapau and Fernandes): an in vitro hemolytic and cytotoxicity evaluation.

To explore the newer saponin resources, in vitro toxicity of saponin-enriched fraction (SEF) extracted from Silene vulgaris(SV) was evaluated for first time and compared with in vitro toxicity of SEF extracted from Sapindus mukorossi (SM) and Chlorophytum borivilianum (CV). All extracted SEF from diverse resources were characterized by immersing TLC plates in 0.5% RBC suspension method, by ethanol: sulfuric acid method and by estimating hRst values. Each extracted SEF clearly portrayed specific pattern with varied hRst range. White spots against a pinkish-red background and greenish-black spots in case of immersion method and spraying method respectively were observed. After initial characterization, in vitro 0.5% sheep RBC lytic activities and VERO cell cytotoxic activities (via SRB assay) of each extracted SEF were also evaluated. Furthermore, SEF of SV showed very less hemolytic activity compared to SM and CB. The HD50 values for SV, SM, and CB were 736.7 ± 2.824, 18.0 ± 1.894, and 170.70 ± 2.783 µg/mL, respectively. SEF of SV (IC50 ≥ 200 µg/mL) was less toxic for VERO cell line than SEF of SM (IC50 = 150.8 µg/mL) and CB (IC50 = 137.1 µg/mL). Hence, the SEF of SV was found to be less toxic and can be used as a new and safer source of saponins.

Evaluation of nutritional and medicinal potential of defatted Sapindus mukorossi seed kernel.

This work deals with the evaluation of nutritional and medicinal potential of a defatted kernel of Sapindus mukorossis seed. Defatted sapindus seed kernel is a rich source of proteins (33.4 ± 2.12%), which show balanced amino acid composition for the requirement of adults as per the World Health Organization. Protein isolate possesses 29 kDa molecular weight peptide, which shows trypsin inhibitor activity. It also showed around 31.2% reduction in amylase activity while aqueous Ethanol and ethanol extracts showed 55% and 72.83%, respectively. Aqueous ethanol and ethanol extracts were found to contain polyphenols and saponins. Polyphenol content in aqueous ethanol and ethanol extract was 4.50 ± 0.15 mg/g and 5.7 ± 0.34 mg/g ferulic acid equivalent, respectively, while 0.72 ± 0.68% and 1.2 ± 0.23% Oleonolic acid equivalent saponins, respectively. Both these extracts showed potent antioxidant activity, and the rate of DPPH scavenging activity was higher than the ferulic acid standard. The deffated seed also contains dietary fibers in which 3.8 ± 0.01% are soluble, and 2.2 ± 0.03% are insoluble fibers.

Decellularization of caprine esophagus using fruit pericarp extract of Sapindus mukorossi.

Biological detergents like sodium deoxycholate, sodium dodecyl sulphate and Triton X-100 impairs the collagenous and non-collagenous proteins, glycosaminoglycans and growth factors. Further, certain chemical and enzymes are responsible for residual cytotoxicity in the decellularized extracellular matrix. The main focus of this study was to explore the decellularization property of soap nut pericarp extract (SPE) for development of decellularized tubular esophageal scaffold. For this 2.5, 5.0 and 10% concentrations of SPE were used for decellularization of caprine esophageal tissues. Histological analysis of hematoxylin and eosin and Masson's trichrome stained tissue samples confirmed decellularization with preservation of extracellular matrix microarchitecture. Scanning electron microscopic images of luminal surface of decellularized esophageal matrix showed randomly oriented collagen fibres with large interconnected pores and cells were absent. However, the external surface was more textured with fibrous structures and collagen fibres were well preserved. DAPI stained decellularized tissues revealed complete removal of nuclear components, verified by DNA content measurement and SDS-PAGE. The FTIR spectra of decellularized esophagus shows absorption peaks of amide A, B, I, II and III. Elastic modulus of the decellularized esophagus scaffolds increased (P > 0.05) as compared to native tissues. Histological and scanning electron microscopic evaluation of in vitro seeded scaffolds showed attachment and growth of primary chicken embryo fibroblasts over and within the decellularized scaffolds. It was concluded that 5% SPE is ideal for preparation of cytocompatible decellularized caprine esophageal scaffold with well-preserved extracellular matrix architecture and, may be used as an alternative to biological detergents and other chemicals.