The Formal and the Informal in the History of Socialist Scholarly Interconnectedness in East Central Europe.

With the emergence of Olympic internationalism, scholarly networking in East Central Europe came to be dominated by the idea of scholars representing their nations, which replaced the previously leading pattern of private elite scholars with extensive international contacts. This also formalised trans-border contacts, which became increasingly seen as international. In this article, we trace the relationship between these formal and informal networks from the late 19th century to the end of the socialist period, showing that even as formalisation grew, it depended heavily on a variety of informal connections. Even during the period of socialism, when the state sought to control international exchange, scholars used informality to circumvent politically determined constraints. Nevertheless, these informal contacts were not outside the system, but were an integral part of it and depended on formal preconditions. Concentrating on Czechoslovak-Polish relations we argue that in addressing the issue of the relationship between the formal and the informal, a combination of sources must be used, which should then be scrutinised for the stories their authors wish to tell. While archival sources are used for the formal part, oral histories or memoirs reveal the informal part. In East Central Europe, formal sources are likely to ignore informality, especially when it was associated with illegality, whereas ego-documents, especially those produced after 1989, are likely to ignore or downplay connections to the state and overemphasise informality as a means of acting outside politics. Thus, writing the history of informality in socialist scholarship, not only in terms of international contacts but also in terms of everyday practices, is a way of developing counter-narratives to the state-centeredness of current research, which must be linked to a critical study of the contemporary memory of socialist scholarship that shapes the narratives told in oral history.

Prejudice in science - Lessons from the coronavirus story.

In the current pandemic times, medical physicists may not be aware that there is an interesting story on two significant discoveries related to the coronavirus. One is the invention of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and the other is the first electron microscopic observation and identification of the coronavirus. Both of them were disregarded by the reviewers and major journals declined to publish these discoveries. These days, PCR, for example, is a widespread method for analyzing DNA, having a profound effect on healthcare, especially now during the Covid-19 pandemic. Prejudice or perhaps ignorance prevail in every aspect of our society, and there is no exception in scientific research. We need to, however, learn from these two stories and be open-minded about novel discoveries and findings - as they may be just disruptive in the "right" way to lead to an unexpected breakthrough.

Os vinte anos da Educação na Interface: trajetória, tendências e desafios / Twenty years of Education in Interface: trajectory, trends and challenges / Los veinte años de Educación en Interface: trayectoria, tendencia y desafíos

O texto resgata os vinte anos do eixo Educação na revista Interface e problematiza essa trajetória a partir de suas publicações. O olhar para esses trabalhos revela as tendências predominantes e reflete acerca dos desafios para as próximas décadas. As categorias de análise: Formação Profissional em Saúde; Políticas de Reorientação da Formação Profissional em Saúde/Docência em Saúde; Práticas Educativas em Saúde e Fundamentos Teóricos e/ou Metodológicos da Educação são acionadas para contemplar o conjunto de temáticas abordadas pelos autores no período histórico do estudo e nos diferentes espaços da revista, em estreita relação com suas finalidades no âmbito da socialização do conhecimento no campo da educação e saúde. Conclui-se que o periódico tem se mostrado espaço importante de sistematização e reflexões tanto dos desafios gerais da educação quanto dos específicos da educação em saúde, potencializando avanços qualitativos na formação profissional.(AU)

The text provides an overview of the twenty years of the Education axis in the journal Interface and analyzes this trajectory based on its publications. The examination of the articles reveals the predominant trends and enables us to reflect on the challenges to the next decades. The categories of analysis: Professional Health Education, Reorientation Policies for Professional Health Education/Health Teaching, Educational Health Practices and Theoretical and/or Methodological Foundations of Education are employed to encompass the set of themes approached by the authors in the historical period of the study, in the journal's different spaces, in a close relationship to the journal's purposes in the sphere of socialization of knowledge in the field of education and health. The conclusion is that Interface has been an important space for the systematization of the general challenges of education and of the specific challenges of health education, as well as for careful reflection on them, potentializing qualitative advances in professional education.(AU)

El texto rescata los veinte años del eje Educación en la revista Interface y problematiza esa trayectoria a partir de sus publicaciones. La mirada hacia esos trabajos revela las tendencias predominantes y reflexiona sobre los desafíos para las próximas décadas. Las categorías de análisis: Formación Profesional en Salud; Políticas de Reorientación de la Formación Profesional en Salud/ Docencia en Salud; Prácticas Educativas en Salud y Fundamentos Teóricos y/o Metodológicos de la Educación se ponen en acción para contemplar el conjunto de temas abordados por los autores en el período histórico del estudio, en los diferentes espacios de la revista, en estrecha relación con sus finalidades en el ámbito de la socialización del conocimiento en el campo de la educación y de la salud. Se concluye que la revista ha mostrado ser un espacio importante de sistematización y reflexiones, tanto de los desafíos generales de la educación como de los específicos de la educación en salud, potenciando avances cualitativos en la formación profesional.(AU)

Networked names: synonyms in eighteenth-century botany.

This paper addresses early modern botanical nomenclature, the practices of identifying and publishing synonyms in particular, as a collaborative "information science". Before Linnaean nomenclature became the lingua franca of botany, it was inevitable that, over time, the same plant was given several names by different people, which created confusion and made communication among botanists increasingly difficult. What names counted as synonyms and actually referred to the same plant had to be identified by meticulously comparing living and dried specimens of this and similar plants as well as relevant illustrations und descriptions in the botanical literature. Identifying synonyms required and generated an ever-expanding mass of data, which was used continuously to adjust and rearrange plant names. Despite the greatest care, judgements on synonyms were not definitive, which meant that published lists of synonyms for individual species of plants were in a state of flux and had to be constantly updated, corrected, and rewritten. This required long-term international collaborations, the accumulated results of which were not published once but consecutively, in augmented and corrected editions of a book. As a result of this networked approach, synonyms are networked names that reflect the epistemic interconnectedness of the botanical community. These questions will be discussed with a focus on the Dutch botanist Johannes Burman (1706-1779), who placed synonyms at the centre of his work as posthumous editor-and co-author-of the botanical manuscripts that were left behind by other botanists.

History of Publications from the American Otological Society: A Celebration of the 150-Year History of the American Otological Society.

: The American Otological Society (AOS) has been on the forefront of advancing the science of auditory and vestibular physiology, and art of ear medicine since its founding in 1868. For 150 years, through its publications, the AOS has provided a critical forum to debate these advances, highlighting treatment successes and failures, and served a place to celebrate its history. This historical review provides an overview of the publications of the AOS since its founding: the Transactions of the annual meeting from 1868 through 2006, Treatises on Otosclerosis (1928-1935), the History of the Society from the 100 and 125th anniversary, and the sponsored Society journals-American Journal of Otology (1879-1883, 1979-2000) and Otology & Neurotology (2001-present).

Lo que pudo ser y no fue: el español en los albores de la ciencia moderna / What could be and was not: the Spanish at the dawn of modern science

A pesar del poder político, militar y económico del Imperio español durante los siglos XVI y XVII, el español no se convirtió en esa época en la lengua científica y médica internacional. Asumiendo como axioma que la causa no hay que buscarla en la propia lengua, el presente capítulo analiza los factores que guiaron la transición desde la Edad Media al mundo moderno y el contexto político, intelectual, cultural, geográfico y técnico que condicionó que el griego y el latín continuaran siendo las lenguas vehiculares de la ciencia culta, mientras que las lenguas vernáculas, entre ellas el español, se desarrollaron en determinadas parcelas del ámbito científico y médico derivadas del uso social del conocimiento y las tradiciones populares. Se analizan también los campos de incorporación del español y las circunstancias políticas y religiosas (la Reforma y la Contrarreforma) que cerraron la cultura española a la vanguardia de la revolución científica del siglo xvii

Despite the political, military and economic power of the Spanish Empire, during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the Spanish language did not become the international scientific and medical language during the early modern period. Assuming that the cause of this event was not the language itself, this chapter discusses the factors that guided the transition from the Middle Ages to the modern world, and the political, intellectual, cultural, geographical and technical context, which conditioned that the Greek and Latin languages remained as lingua franca of the academic, elitist science, while vernacular languages were developed in certain scientific and medical fields closely linked to its social use and popular traditions. I try to analyze as well the political and religious circumstances (Reformation versus Counterreformation) that closed the Spanish culture to the so called scientific revolution of the seventeenth century

Permanent professional education in healthcare services / Educación permanente en los servicios de salud / Educação permanente nos serviços de saúde

Objective: To analyze the literature on permanent education, identifying the conceptual evolution and its application in health services in Brazil. Method: An integrative review of the literature was performed. A total of 54 studies written in English, Portuguese and Spanish, published from January 1970 to May 2016 from the databases of the Virtual Health Library, were included. Results: Conceptual problematization was highlighted as a contribution to educational actions, indicating a conceptual development of permanent education in Brazil. However, permanent education actions sometimes occur independently from the work process. There are difficulties in understanding and application, with repercussions for health services, revealing that professionals' and managers' commitment is a challenge. Implications for practice: Continuing education is a field that lacks investments for the transformation of reality in the health service routine in Brazil.

Objetivo: Analizar la literatura sobre la Educación Continua, identificando la evolución conceptual y su aplicación en los servicios de salud en Brasil. Método: Revisión integrativa de la literatura. Se incluyeron 54 estudios en inglés, portugués y español, desde enero de 1970 hasta mayo de 2016, a partir de las bases de la Biblioteca Virtual de Salud. Resultados: Se destacó la concepción problematizada como contribución a la educación, lo que indica avance conceptual en la educación continua en Brasil. Sin embargo, las acciones de educación permanente, por veces, suceden desconectadas del proceso de trabajo. Existen dificultades en la comprensión y aplicación, con repercusiones en los servicios de salud, revelándose como un reto el compromiso de los profesionales y directivos. Implicaciones para la práctica: La educación continua es un campo que necesita más inversión para la transformación de la realidad en la vida cotidiana de los servicios de salud en Brasil.

Objetivo: Analisar a literatura sobre educação permanente, identificando a evolução conceitual e sua aplicação nos serviços de saúde no Brasil. Método: Revisão integrativa de literatura. Foram incluídas 54 publicações em inglês, português e espanhol, de janeiro de 1970 a maio de 2016, provenientes das bases da Biblioteca Virtual em Saúde. Resultados: Destacou-se a concepção problematizadora como aporte para as ações educativas, indicando avanço conceitual sobre a educação permanente no Brasil. No entanto, as ações de educação permanente, por vezes, acontecem desarticuladas do processo de trabalho. Existem dificuldades de compreensão e aplicação, com repercussões nos serviços de saúde, revelando-se como desafio o comprometimento dos profissionais e gestores. Implicações para a prática: A educação permanente é campo que carece de investimentos, visando à transformação da realidade no cotidiano dos serviços de saúde, no Brasil.