Privileges, Immunities, and Affirmative Action in Medical Education.

In Students for Fair Admissions v. President and Fellows of Harvard College and Students for Fair Admissions v. University of North Carolina, the Supreme Court ruled that affirmative action in university admissions, in which an applicant of a particular race or ethnicity receives a plus factor, is unconstitutional. This ruling was based on both the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment and Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. This article argues that a more natural fit as the basis for constitutional analysis would be a different clause in the Fourteenth Amendment, the Privileges or Immunities Clause. In the article, a legal analysis based on the clause is applied to medical school admissions. Depending on whether a fundamental rights reading or an antidiscrimination (equality) reading of the clause is applied, opposite conclusions are reached on the constitutionality of affirmative action in medical school admissions. This analysis demonstrates why affirmative action in admissions--in this case medical school admissions, which directly affect the composition of the Nation's physician workforce--is a complex and difficult constitutional question.

How the SCOTUS Affirmative Action Ruling Could Affect Medical Schools and Health Care.

This Medical News feature examines the potential impact of the US Supreme Court's affirmative action decision on medical schools and health care.

Diversity Is Not Enough: Advancing a Framework for Antiracism in Medical Education.

Medical students, residents, and faculty have begun to examine and grapple with the legacy and persistence of structural racism in academic medicine in the United States. Until recently, the discourse and solutions have largely focused on augmenting diversity across the medical education continuum through increased numbers of learners from groups underrepresented in medicine (UIM). Despite deliberate measures implemented by medical schools, residency programs, academic institutions, and national organizations, meaningful growth in diversity has not been attained. To the contrary, the UIM representation among medical trainees has declined or remained below the representation in the general population. Inequities continue to be observed in multiple domains of medical education, including grading, admission to honor societies, and extracurricular obligations. These inequities, alongside learners' experiences and calls for action, led the authors to conclude that augmenting diversity is necessary but insufficient to achieve equity in the learning environment. In this article, the authors advance a 4-step framework, built on established principles and practices of antiracism, to dismantle structural racism in medical education. They ground each step of the framework in the concepts and skills familiar to medical educators. By drawing parallels with clinical reasoning, medical error, continuous quality improvement, the growth mindset, and adaptive expertise, the authors show how learners, faculty, and academic leaders can implement the framework's 4 steps-see, name, understand, and act-to shift the paradigm from a goal of diversity to a stance of antiracism in medical education.

Addressing Climate Change and Its Effects on Human Health: A Call to Action for Medical Schools.

Human health is increasingly threatened by rapid and widespread changes in the environment and climate, including rising temperatures, air and water pollution, disease vector migration, floods, and droughts. In the United States, many medical schools, the American Medical Association, and the National Academy of Sciences have published calls for physicians and physicians-in-training to develop a basic knowledge of the science of climate change and an awareness of the associated health risks. The authors-all medical students and educators-argue for the expeditious redesign of medical school curricula to teach students to recognize, diagnose, and treat the many health conditions exacerbated by climate change as well as understand public health issues. In this Invited Commentary, the authors briefly review the health impacts of climate change, examine current climate change course offerings and proposals, and describe the rationale for promptly and comprehensively including climate science education in medical school curricula. Efforts in training physicians now will benefit those physicians' communities whose health will be impacted by a period of remarkable climate change. The bottom line is that the health effects of climate reality cannot be ignored, and people everywhere must adapt as quickly as possible.

Encontros e desencontros entre projetos pedagógicos de cursos de Medicina e Diretrizes Curriculares Nacionais: percepções de professores / Convergence and gaps between medical courses educational projects and the National Curriculum Guidelines: university professors' perceptions / Encuentros y desencuentros entre proyectos pedagógicos de cursos de Medicina y Directrices Curriculares Nacionales: percepciones de profesores

Compreender a consolidação das Diretrizes Curriculares Nacionais (DCN) demanda contextualizar a realidade de cada instituição. Sua implantação pressupõe (re) orientação do processo de formação na Saúde, com integração entre Projeto Pedagógico do Curso (PPC), Sistema Único de Saúde (SUS) e envolvimento docente. Para captar a percepção docente sobre o alinhamento entre PPC e DCN, realizou-se estudo exploratório com metodologia qualitativa e os docentes respondendo a um questionário. Utilizou-se análise de conteúdo para construção de categorias temáticas. Os docentes de uma escola reconhecem que o PPC não está alinhado às DCN. Revelam trabalho docente determinado por perfil profissional e pessoal. Em outra escola, cuja reforma curricular já adota metodologia de ensino-aprendizagem ativa, os docentes se sentem apropriados às DCN. Concluímos, portanto, que as mudanças no PPC são processos que demandam tempo, dedicação e comunicação, ou seja, maior mudança na instituição de ensino. (AU)

To understand the National Curriculum Guidelines (NCG) it is necessary to contextualize the reality of each educational institution. The effective implementation of the guidelines requires the (re)orientation of the health education process; promoting integration between the course educational project (CEP); Brazilian National Health System (SUS) and professor engagement. We conducted a qualitative exploratory study using questionnaires to capture professors' perceptions of the alignment between medicine CEPs and the NCG. Content analysis was performed to develop thematic categories. The professors at one school acknowledged that the CEP and NCG were not aligned and their responses revealed that teaching is determined by each professor's professional and personal background. In another school whose curriculum reform adopted active teaching-learning methodologies, the professors felt a sense of ownership in relation to the NCG. We therefore conclude that the CEP change process requires time, dedication and effective communication or, in other words, greater change within the education institution. (AU)

Comprender la consolidación de las Directrices Curriculares Nacionales demanda poner en contexto la realidad de cada institución. Su implantación presupone una (re)orientación del proceso de formación en la salud, con integración entre Proyecto Pedagógico del Curso, Sistema Brasileño de Salud (SUS) y envolvimiento docente. Para captar la percepción docente sobre el alineamiento entre PPC y DCN, se realizó un estudio exploratorio, con metodología cualitativa, en el que los docentes respondieron a un cuestionario. Se utilizó un análisis de contenido para la construcción de categorías temáticas. Los docentes de una escuela reconocen que el PPC no está alineado a las DCN. Revelan un trabajo docente determinado por perfil profesional y personal. En otra escuela, cuya reforma curricular ya adopta la metodología de enseñanza-aprendizaje activa, los docentes se sienten apropiados de las DCN. Concluimos, por lo tanto, que los cambios en los PPC son procesos que demandan tiempo, dedicación y comunicación, es decir, un mayor cambio en la institución de enseñanza. (AU)

La figura docente del profesor contratado doctor vinculado: situación actual en España y la experiencia de Andalucía / The figure of the tenure-eligible lecturer: current situation Spain and experience in Andalusia

En este documento se refieren las bases legales nacionales y, más en concreto, las autonómicas andaluzas que dan respaldo a la figura del profesor contratado doctor vinculado y a la posibilidad de convocar las plazas correspondientes en las facultades de medicina de las universidades públicas españolas. Se exponen, asimismo, las características asistenciales y académicas que deben darse para llevar a cabo la convocatoria pública de dichas plazas. Se resume, a continuación, cuál es la situación actual existente en relación con dicha figura del profesorado en las facultades de medicina españolas. Se analizan también las ventajas y las posibles limitaciones que actualmente se derivan de contar con profesores contratados doctores vinculados y ello tanto para los médicos especialistas eventualmente interesados en optar a una de estas plazas como para el centro sanitario y la facultad de medicina correspondientes. Finalmente, se reseña la posible utilidad del documento elaborado por la Conferencia Nacional de Decanos de Facultades de Medicina de España (CNDFME) en la Asamblea General que se celebró en la Facultad de Medicina de Oviedo del 17 al 19 de mayo del 2018 y actualizado en marzo de 2020

A discussion is presented on the national legal foundations, and more specifically, those of Andalusia, that support the figure of the tenure-eligible lecturer and the possibility of filling the corresponding positions in the faculties of medicine in Spanish public universities are discussed. The clinical and academic characteristics that they must have in order to fill those public positions are also presented. The current situation as regards such a figure as a lecturer in Spanish faculties of medicine is then summarised. An analysis is made of the advantages and the possible limitations arising from having a tenure-eligible lecturer, and how this affects both the medical specialists possibly interested in opting for one of these positions, as well as for the corresponding health centres and faculties of medicine. Finally, mention is made of the possible use of the document prepared by the National Conference of Medical Faculty Deans (CNDFME) in the General Assembly held in the Oviedo Faculty of Medicine from 17 to 19 May 2018, and updated in March 2020

La evolución pandémica del profesorado permanente en las facultades de medicina españolas / The pandemic evolution of the permanent teachers in the Spanish schools of medicine

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Institutional differences in USMLE Step 1 and 2 CK performance: Cross-sectional study of 89 US allopathic medical schools.

INTRODUCTION: The United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE) Step 1 and Step 2 Clinical Knowledge (CK) are important for trainee medical knowledge assessment and licensure, medical school program assessment, and residency program applicant screening. Little is known about how USMLE performance varies between institutions. This observational study attempts to identify institutions with above-predicted USMLE performance, which may indicate educational programs successful at promoting students' medical knowledge. METHODS: Self-reported institution-level data was tabulated from publicly available US News and World Report and Association of American Medical Colleges publications for 131 US allopathic medical schools from 2012-2014. Bivariate and multiple linear regression were performed. The primary outcome was institutional mean USMLE Step 1 and Step 2 CK scores outside a 95% prediction interval (≥2 standard deviations above or below predicted) based on multiple regression accounting for students' prior academic performance. RESULTS: Eighty-nine US medical schools (54 public, 35 private) reported complete USMLE scores over the three-year study period, representing over 39,000 examinees. Institutional mean grade point average (GPA) and Medical College Admission Test score (MCAT) achieved an adjusted R2 of 72% for Step 1 (standardized ßMCAT 0.7, ßGPA 0.2) and 41% for Step 2 CK (standardized ßMCAT 0.5, ßGPA 0.3) in multiple regression. Using this regression model, 5 institutions were identified with above-predicted institutional USMLE performance, while 3 institutions had below-predicted performance. CONCLUSIONS: This exploratory study identified several US allopathic medical schools with significant above- or below-predicted USMLE performance. Although limited by self-reported data, the findings raise questions about inter-institutional USMLE performance parity, and thus, educational parity. Additional work is needed to determine the etiology and robustness of the observed performance differences.

The Americans With Disabilities Act, Reasonable Accommodations, and Medical Education.

The number of students with a disability matriculating into institutions of medical education, including physician assistant programs, is increasing. Educational institutions must develop procedures with regard to the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) including the provision of reasonable accommodations to provide equal opportunities for all. These procedures must be compliant with federal and state laws while protecting academic integrity, maintaining technical standards, and successfully navigating the institutional and individual faculty barriers. Knowledge of the ADA and the ADA Amendments Act of 2008 as well as some familiarity with the legal precedent regarding these laws will facilitate planning and decision-making for students with disabilities. This is imperative for educating not just those with specific disabilities but also the evolving learners of today. Such knowledge, coupled with the continued prioritization of technical standards and student outcomes, will assist in the curricular development of the future.

Goodness of fit of the items used in the 2nd cycle of evaluation and accreditation of medical schools by the Korea Institute of Medical Education and Evaluation based on the Rasch model.

PURPOSE: Since 2004, the Korea Institute of Medical Education and Evaluation has been responsible for the evaluation and accreditation of medical schools in Korea. The 2nd cycle of evaluations was conducted from 2007 to 2011. The present study aimed at testing the goodness of fit of the items used in the 2nd cycle of evaluation and accreditation based on the Rasch model. METHODS: Dichotomous data on 40 medical schools were analyzed using Winsteps, a tool based on the Rasch model that includes goodness-of-fit testing. RESULTS: Two of the 109 items had an outfit mean square exceeding 2.0. The other 107 items showed a goodness of fit in the acceptable range for the outfit mean square. All items were in the acceptable range in terms of the infit mean square. Furthermore, 1 school had an outfit mean square exceeding 2.0, while all schools were in the acceptable range for the infit mean square. An outfit mean square value over 2.0 means that an item is a outlier. Therefore, 2 items showed an extreme response relative to the overall response. Meanwhile, the finding of an outfit mean square over 2.0 for 1 school means that it showed extraordinary responses to specific items, despite its excellent overall competency. CONCLUSION: The goodness of fit of the items used for evaluation and accreditation by the Korea Institute of Medical Education and Evaluation should be checked so that they can be revised appropriately. Furthermore, the outlier school should be investigated to determine why it showed such an inappropriate goodness of fit.

Why Did the United States Medical School Admissions Quota for Jews End?

At the end of World War II anti-Semitism was pervasive in the United States. Quotas to limit the number of Jewish students were put in place at most U.S. medical schools in the 1920s and were well-entrenched by 1945. By 1970 the quota was gone. Why? Multiple factors contributed to the end of the quota. First, attitudes toward Jews shifted as Americans recoiled from the horrors of the Holocaust and over half a million Jewish GIs returned home from World War II. Many entered the higher education system. Second, governmental and private investigations in New York City, New York State and Philadelphia exposed the quota. Third, New York State, led by Governor Thomas E. Dewey, established 4 publicly supported nondiscriminatory medical schools. These schools adsorbed many New York Jewish applicants. Fourth, from the 1920s through the 1960s some medical schools consistently or intermittently ignored the quota. Finally, the federal and several state governments passed nondiscrimination in higher education legislation. The quotas ended because of a combination of changing societal attitudes and government and private social action. This remarkable social change may be instructive as higher education now grapples with allegations of a quota system for Asian-Americans.

[Scientific production and licensing of medical schools in Peru]. / Producción científica y licenciamiento de escuelas de medicina en el Perú.

The new university law 30220 of 2014 introduced the mandatory institutional licensing of all Peruvian universities by the National Superintendence of Higher University Education (SUNEDU, in Spanish). The first undergraduate program to go through this process will be medicine. The licensing of medical programs is necessary to ensure that the conditions in which the program is taught in Peru are adequate, with a high probability of closing some medical schools. Once a medical school has demonstrated that it meets the basic conditions of quality, a qualitative and quantitative evaluation is carried out that includes three criteria: scientific production in the Web of Science, impact measured through the H index, and results of the national medical exam, to determine the years of licensing. This article evaluates the quantitative indicators linked to research using Web of Science and Scopus, in addition to making technical and methodological revisions of them. Suggestions for the other indicators are also covered by this article.

La nueva ley universitaria 30220 del 2014 creó la obligatoriedad del licenciamiento institucional de todas las universidades peruanas a cargo de la Superintendencia Nacional de Educación Superior Universitaria - SUNEDU, el primer programa de pregrado en pasar por el mismo proceso será medicina. El licenciamiento de programas de medicina es necesario para garantizar que las condiciones en que se imparte la carrera en el Perú son las adecuadas, con la alta posibilidad de cierre de algunas escuelas de medicina. Una vez que una escuela de medicina haya demostrado que cumple con las condiciones básicas de calidad, se realiza una evaluación cualitativa y una cuantitativa que incluye tres criterios: producción científica en Web of Science, impacto medido a través del índice H, y resultados del examen nacional de medicina, para determinar los años de licenciamiento. Este artículo realiza una evaluación de los indicadores cuantitativos vinculados a investigación usando Web of Science y Scopus, además de hacer revisiones técnicas y metodológicas de los mismos; así como sugerencias para los otros indicadores.

Producción científica y licenciamiento de escuelas de medicina en el Perú / Scientific production and licensing of medical schools in Peru

La nueva ley universitaria 30220 del 2014 creó la obligatoriedad del licenciamiento institucional de todas las universidades peruanas a cargo de la Superintendencia Nacional de Educación Superior Universitaria - SUNEDU, el primer programa de pregrado en pasar por el mismo proceso será medicina. El licenciamiento de programas de medicina es necesario para garantizar que las condiciones en que se imparte la carrera en el Perú son las adecuadas, con la alta posibilidad de cierre de algunas escuelas de medicina. Una vez que una escuela de medicina haya demostrado que cumple con las condiciones básicas de calidad, se realiza una evaluación cualitativa y una cuantitativa que incluye tres criterios: producción científica en Web of Science, impacto medido a través del índice H, y resultados del examen nacional de medicina, para determinar los años de licenciamiento. Este artículo realiza una evaluación de los indicadores cuantitativos vinculados a investigación usando Web of Science y Scopus, además de hacer revisiones técnicas y metodológicas de los mismos; así como sugerencias para los otros indicadores.

The new university law 30220 of 2014 introduced the mandatory institutional licensing of all Peruvian universities by the National Superintendence of Higher University Education (SUNEDU, in Spanish). The first undergraduate program to go through this process will be medicine. The licensing of medical programs is necessary to ensure that the conditions in which the program is taught in Peru are adequate, with a high probability of closing some medical schools. Once a medical school has demonstrated that it meets the basic conditions of quality, a qualitative and quantitative evaluation is carried out that includes three criteria: scientific production in the Web of Science, impact measured through the H index, and results of the national medical exam, to determine the years of licensing. This article evaluates the quantitative indicators linked to research using Web of Science and Scopus, in addition to making technical and methodological revisions of them. Suggestions for the other indicators are also covered by this article.