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1.
Arch Virol ; 167(3): 947-951, 2022 Mar.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-35103854

ABSTRACT

A tobamovirus was isolated from leaves of a Scopolia japonica plant showing mild yellowing. Back-inoculation of healthy Scopolia japonica with the isolated virus induced mild mottle on upper leaves. Phylogenetic analysis based on coat protein and replicase protein sequences revealed that the newly isolated tobamovirus was most closely related to yellow tailflower mild mottle virus (YTMMV). The newly isolated tobamovirus shared the highest nucleotide sequence identity (71%) with YTMMV, which is lower than the cutoff (90%) set for species demarcation in the genus Tobamovirus. Thus, our result suggested that scopolia mild mottle virus (SMMoV) is a new tobamovirus that infects Scopolia japonica plants in Japan.


Subject(s)
Scopolia , Tobamovirus , Genome, Viral , Japan , Phylogeny , Plant Diseases
2.
Org Lett ; 22(21): 8240-8244, 2020 11 06.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-33021797

ABSTRACT

A pair of new macrocyclic spermidine alkaloids, (+)-(S)-scocycamide and (-)-(R)-scocycamide, were isolated from the roots of Scopolia tangutica. Their structures were established by extensive spectroscopic data, electronic circular dichroism analyses, and chemical synthesis. They featured a unique 6/18 fused bicyclic framework with spermidine and catechol units, representing a new subtype of natural spermidine alkaloids. A plausible biosynthetic pathway was also proposed. They inhibited butyrylcholinesterase and exhibited antioxidant capacity, suggesting beneficial constituents against Alzheimer's disease and oxidation.


Subject(s)
Butyrylcholinesterase/metabolism , Cholinesterase Inhibitors/chemistry , Cholinesterase Inhibitors/pharmacology , Plant Roots/chemistry , Scopolia/chemistry , Spermidine/chemistry , Spermidine/pharmacology
3.
J Tradit Chin Med ; 40(2): 340-342, 2020 04.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-32242401

ABSTRACT

The management of dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is well established. However, a subset of patients does not have recovery from or have recurrences of left ventricular (LV) dysfunction despite receiving optimal medical therapy. Coronary microvascular dysfunction (CMD) can result from structural and functional abnormalities at the intramural and small coronary vessel level affecting coronary blood flow autoregulation and consequently leading to impaired coronary flow reserve. Dilated myocardial phenotype may be responsible for CMD in DCM. Anisodamine can exert a significant effect on relieving microvascular spasm, and improving and dredging the coronary microcirculation. However, whether CMD can be potentially improved with anisodamine to make DCM better remains incompletely understood.


Subject(s)
Cardiomyopathy, Dilated/drug therapy , Coronary Disease/complications , Drugs, Chinese Herbal/administration & dosage , Solanaceous Alkaloids/administration & dosage , Adult , Aged , Cardiomyopathy, Dilated/etiology , Cardiomyopathy, Dilated/physiopathology , Female , Follow-Up Studies , Humans , Male , Microcirculation/drug effects , Middle Aged , Scopolia/chemistry , Ventricular Function, Left/drug effects
4.
Toxicon ; 177: 52-88, 2020 Apr 15.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-32217234

ABSTRACT

Datura stramonium, Atropa belladonna, Hyoscyamus niger, and Scopolia carniolica are all temperate plants from the family Solanaceae, which as a result of their anticholinergic tropane alkaloids, hyoscyamine/atropine and scopolamine, have caused many cases of poisoning around the world. Despite the danger these nightshade plants represent, the literature often presents incomplete cases lacking in details and filled with ambiguity, and reviews on the topic tend to be limited in scope. Many also point to a gap in knowledge of these plants among physicians. To address this, the following review focuses on intoxications involving these plants as reported in the literature between 1966 and 2018, with brief mention to pertinent related plants to contextualise and provide a fuller picture of the situation surrounding the presently discussed temperate plants. Analysis of the literature displays that D. stramonium is largely associated with drug use among teens while A. belladonna is primarily ingested as a result of the berries being mistaken for edible fruits. H. niger was found to be largely ingested when mistaken for other plants, and S. carniolica was the cause of incredibly few intoxications.


Subject(s)
Cholinergic Antagonists/toxicity , Plant Extracts/toxicity , Plant Poisoning/epidemiology , Solanaceae , Solanaceous Alkaloids/toxicity , Alkaloids , Atropa belladonna , Europe , Humans , Hyoscyamus , Scopolamine , Scopolia , Tropanes
5.
J Sep Sci ; 42(6): 1163-1173, 2019 Mar.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-30637960

ABSTRACT

Scopolia tangutica is a traditional Chinese medicine used for antispasmodic, anesthesia, analgesia, and sedation. Its medicinal activity is associated to alkaloid constituents, including tropane and cinnamamide types. Low content of alkaloids in plant makes them difficult to be isolated and identified. The present work developed an effective method to quickly characterize alkaloids from Scopolia tangutica by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry. Thirteen reference compounds were studied for their fragmentation pathways, including five tropane alkaloids and eight cinnamamide ones. Alkaloid constituent was analyzed by an optimized high-performance liquid chromatography method and mass spectrometry analysis to achieve systematic characterization of alkaloids from Scopolia tangutica. As a result, 53 compounds were identified, including 21 tropane alkaloids (eight new ones), 18 caffeoyl ones (ten new ones) and 14 dicaffeoyl ones (seven new ones). It was important to provide rich information in phytochemical study and structure-guided isolation of important compounds from this plant.


Subject(s)
Alkaloids/isolation & purification , Cinnamates/isolation & purification , Drugs, Chinese Herbal/isolation & purification , Plant Extracts/isolation & purification , Scopolia/chemistry , Tropanes/isolation & purification , Alkaloids/chemistry , Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid , Cinnamates/chemistry , Drugs, Chinese Herbal/chemistry , Medicine, Chinese Traditional , Plant Extracts/chemistry , Tandem Mass Spectrometry , Time Factors , Tropanes/chemistry
6.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-30594825

ABSTRACT

Since the content of alkaloids is usually low in plants and they are easily co-eluted with other constituents, enrichment of alkaloids is essential in the discovery of bioactive lead compounds from natural products. In this paper, an easy SPE enrichment method was developed in a buffer-free solvent system based on electrostatic repulsion mechanism. The feasibility of the new method was verified by successful enrichment of alkaloids from Scopolia tangutica (S. tangutica) with an optimized eluting condition. Then this developed method was applied to other representative plants in different families, including Przewalskia tangutica and Peganum harmala L, Lycoris radiata and Menispermum dauricum DC, which enlarged the scope of applicability. Additionally, the new SPE procedure avoided possible structural change destruction caused by pH change. Simple solvent system, including formic acid (FA) and methanol, would benefit subsequent mass analysis, quantity determination and bioactivity screening, and so on.


Subject(s)
Alkaloids/chemistry , Alkaloids/isolation & purification , Plant Extracts/chemistry , Alkaloids/analysis , Chromatography, Ion Exchange/methods , Chromatography, Reverse-Phase/methods , Scopolia/chemistry , Static Electricity
7.
Biochem Biophys Res Commun ; 497(1): 25-31, 2018 02 26.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-29407173

ABSTRACT

Scopolia lurida, a medicinal plant native to the Tibetan Plateau, is among the most effective producers of pharmaceutical tropane alkaloids (TAs). The hyoscyamine 6ß-hydroxylase genes of Hyoscyamus niger (HnH6H) and S. lurida (SlH6H) were cloned and respectively overexpressed in hairy root cultures of S. lurida, to compare their effects on promoting the production of TAs, especially the high-value scopolamine. Root cultures with SlH6H/HnH6H overexpression were confirmed by PCR and real-time quantitative PCR, suggesting that the enzymatic steps defined by H6H were strongly elevated at the transcriptional level. Tropane alkaloids, including hyoscyamine, anisodamine and scopolamine, were analyzed by HPLC. Scopolamine and anisodamine contents were remarkably elevated in the root cultures overexpressing SlH6H/HnH6H, whereas that of hyoscyamine was more or less reduced, when compared with those of the control. These results also indicated that SlH6H and HnH6H promoted anisodamine production at similar levels in S. lurida root cultures. More importantly, HnH6H-overexpressing root cultures had more scopolamine in them that did SlH6H-overexpressing root cultures. This study not only provides a feasible way of overexpressing H6H to produce high-value scopolamine in engineered root cultures of S. lurida but also found that HnH6H was better than SlH6H for engineering scopolamine production.


Subject(s)
Metabolic Engineering/methods , Mixed Function Oxygenases/genetics , Plant Roots/physiology , Plants, Genetically Modified/physiology , Scopolamine/metabolism , Scopolia/physiology , Enzyme Activation , Enzyme Stability , Genetic Enhancement/methods , Mixed Function Oxygenases/metabolism , Recombinant Proteins/genetics , Recombinant Proteins/metabolism , Scopolamine/isolation & purification
8.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-29136553

ABSTRACT

Current Chinese Pharmacopoeia (ChP) standards apply liquid extraction combined with one dimensional liquid chromatography (1DLC) method for determining alkaloids in herbal medicines. The complex pretreatments lead to a low analytical efficiency and possible component loss. In this study, a heart cutting reversed phase - strong cation exchange two dimensional liquid chromatography (RP - SCX 2DLC) approach was optimized for simultaneously quantifying tropane alkaloids (anisodine, scopolamine and hyoscyamine) in herbal medicines and herbal medicine tablets without further treatment of the filtered extract. The chromatographic conditions were systematically optimized in terms of column type, mobile phase composition and flow rate. To improve peak capacity and obtain symmetric peak shape of alkaloids, a polar group embedded C18 column combined with chaotropic salts was used in the first dimension. To remove the disturbance of non-alkaloids, achieve unique selectivity and acquire symmetric peak shape of alkaloids, an SCX column combined with phosphate buffer was used in the second dimension. Method validation was performed in terms of linearity, precision (0.54-0.82%), recovery (94.1-105.2%), limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) of the three analytes varied between 0.067-0.115mgL-1 and 0.195-0.268mgL-1, respectively. The method demonstrated superiority over 1DLC method in respect of resolution (less alkaloid co-eluted), sample preparation (no pretreatment procedure) and transfer rate (minimum component loss). The optimized RP - SCX 2DLC approach was subsequently applied to quantify target alkaloids in five herbal medicines and herbal medicine tablets from three different manufactures. The results demonstrated that the developed heart cutting RP - SCX 2DLC approach represented a new, strategically significant methodology for the quality evaluation of tropane alkaloid in related herbal medicines that involve complex chemical matrix.


Subject(s)
Alkaloids/analysis , Chromatography, Ion Exchange/methods , Chromatography, Reverse-Phase/methods , Tropanes/analysis , Alkaloids/isolation & purification , Cations , Limit of Detection , Linear Models , Plant Extracts/chemistry , Reproducibility of Results , Scopolia/chemistry , Tropanes/isolation & purification
9.
Sci Rep ; 7: 46067, 2017 04 07.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-28387362

ABSTRACT

Scopolia tangutica (S. tangutica) is a traditional Chinese medicinal plant used for antispasmodics, anesthesia, analgesia and sedation. Its pharmacological activities are mostly associated with the antagonistic activity at muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAchRs) of several known alkaloids such as atropine and scopolamine. With our recent identification of four hydroxycinnamic acid amides from S. tangutica, we hypothesized that this plant may contain previously unidentified alkaloids that may also contribute to its in vivo effect. Herein, we used a bioassay-guided multi-dimension separation strategy to discover novel mAchR antagonists from S. tangutica. The core of this approach is to use label-free cell phenotypic assay to first identify active fractions, and then to guide purification of active ligands. Besides four tropanes and six cinnamic acid amides that have been previously isolated from S. tangutica, we recently identified two new tropanes, one new cinnamic acid amide, and nine other compounds. Six tropane compounds purified from S. tangutica for the first time were confirmed to be competitive antagonists of muscarinic receptor 3 (M3), including the two new ones 8 and 12 with IC50 values of 1.97 µM and 4.47 µM, respectively. Furthermore, the cinnamic acid amide 17 displayed 15-fold selectivity for M1 over M3 receptors. These findings will be useful in designing lead compounds for mAchRs and elucidating mechanisms of action of S. tangutica.


Subject(s)
Cholinergic Antagonists/pharmacology , Drug Discovery , Muscarinic Antagonists/pharmacology , Scopolia/chemistry , A549 Cells , Alkaloids/chemistry , Alkaloids/isolation & purification , Alkaloids/pharmacology , Amides/pharmacology , Animals , CHO Cells , Cholinergic Antagonists/chemistry , Cricetinae , Cricetulus , HT29 Cells , Humans , Muscarinic Antagonists/chemistry , Phenotype , Receptor, Muscarinic M3/antagonists & inhibitors , Receptor, Muscarinic M3/metabolism
10.
Fitoterapia ; 108: 9-12, 2016 Jan.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-26586621

ABSTRACT

Scopolia tangutica Maxim (S. tangutica) extracts have been traditionally used as antispasmodic, sedative, and analgesic agents in Tibet and in the Qinghai province of China. Their active compositions are however poorly understood. We have recently isolated five new hydroxycinnamic acid (HCA) amides along with two known HCA amides, one cinnamic acid amide from these extracts. In this study, we evaluate their abilities to inhibit carbacol-induced activity of M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor along with the crude extracts. Chinese hamster ovary cells stably expressing the recombinant human M1 receptor (CHO-M1 cells) were employed to evaluate the anticholinergic potentials. Intracellular Ca(2+) changes were monitored using the FLIPR system. Five HCA amides as well as the crude S. tangutica extract displayed dose-dependent inhibitory effects against M1 receptor. These findings demonstrate that HCA amides are part of the M1 receptor-inhibiting principles of S. tangutica. Since blockade of parasympathetic nerve impulse transmission through the inhibition of the M1 receptor lessens smooth muscle spasms, our findings provided a molecular explanation for the traditional use of S. tangutica against spasm.


Subject(s)
Coumaric Acids/pharmacology , Muscarinic Antagonists/pharmacology , Plant Extracts/chemistry , Receptor, Muscarinic M1/antagonists & inhibitors , Scopolia/chemistry , Animals , CHO Cells , Cricetulus , Drugs, Chinese Herbal/chemistry , Humans , Molecular Structure , Plant Roots/chemistry , Recombinant Proteins
11.
Planta Med ; 80(13): 1124-30, 2014 Aug.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-25127021

ABSTRACT

Four new hydroxycinnamic acid amides, scotanamines A-D (1-4), and seven known alkaloids, including N (1),N (10)-di-dihydrocaffeoylspermidine (5), scopolamine (6), anisodamine (7), hyoscyamine (8), anisodine (9), caffeoylputrescine (10), and N (1)-caffeoyl-N (3)-dihydrocaffeoylspermidine (11), were obtained from the roots of Scopolia tangutica. The present study represents the first recognition of hydroxycinnamic acid amides containing putrescine or spermidine in S. tangutica. Compound 1, in particular, contains a moiety resulting from the condensation of nortropinone and putrescine. Compound 2 exhibited moderate agonist activity at the µ-opioid receptor (EC50=7.3 µM). Compound 2 was tested in vivo and induced analgesia in mice. The analgesic effect was recorded using the tail-flick assay and was reversed by naloxone.


Subject(s)
Alkaloids/pharmacology , Analgesics/pharmacology , Scopolia/chemistry , Alkaloids/chemistry , Alkaloids/isolation & purification , Analgesics/chemistry , Analgesics/isolation & purification , Animals , Cells, Cultured , Male , Mice , Plant Extracts/chemistry , Plant Roots/chemistry , Receptors, Opioid, mu/chemistry
13.
Article in Korean | WPRIM (Western Pacific) | ID: wpr-30071

ABSTRACT

Distinguishing wild plants in spring from ingestible plants is difficult. Differentiation of budding plants from other plants is particularly difficult. Many people want to find edible plants for health during the spring season. Scopolia japonica can cause symptoms of mania. The author experienced three cases of poisoning by Scopolia japonica. We reported on the cases with literature reviews.


Subject(s)
Bipolar Disorder , Eating , Plants , Plants, Edible , Poisoning , Scopolia , Seasons
14.
Analyst ; 137(6): 1451-7, 2012 Mar 21.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-22299130

ABSTRACT

A non-aqueous solid phase extraction (SPE) method utilizing silica based strong cation exchange (SCX) was developed and optimized for the enrichment of alkaloids. In this method, silica based SCX SPE columns were used for the elimination of non-alkaloid compounds and the preconcentration of alkaloids from the extracts. Mass spectrometry was employed to analyze the alkaloid-enriched fraction, and results showed that the SPE method developed in this study was effective for the removal of non-alkaloids. Then, this pretreatment method was combined with high performance liquid chromatography for the quantification of scopolamine and hyoscyamine from Scopolia tangutica Maxim. The recoveries of scopolamine and (-)-hyoscyamine were 98.51% and 91.12%, respectively. Relative standard deviation values were 1.4% for scopolamine and 1.6% for (-)-hyoscyamine. The linearity was good in the 0.01-0.8 mg mL(-1) range for hyoscyamine and 0.01-0.4 mg mL(-1) range for scopolamine.


Subject(s)
Alkaloids/chemistry , Atropine/analysis , Scopolamine/analysis , Solid Phase Extraction/methods , Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid/methods , Mass Spectrometry/methods , Plant Extracts/chemistry , Scopolia/chemistry , Solid Phase Extraction/instrumentation
15.
J Nat Med ; 65(2): 395-9, 2011 Apr.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-21076881

ABSTRACT

A rapid method that does not require a complicated preparation was developed for determining by HPLC the content of atropine (At) and scopolamine (Sc) in a sample of scopolia extract powder. The sample solution for HPLC was extracted using 0.1 mol/L HCl/methanol (8:2). At and Sc were separated using a pentafluorophenylpropyl column and detected at a wavelength of 210 nm. Acetonitrile-10 mmol/L ammonium acetate adjusted to pH 5.0 (8:2, v/v) was used as the mobile phase. The linearity was good in the 5.0-500 µg/mL range for At and 0.5-500 µg/mL range for Sc. The specificity for both At and Sc was satisfactory. The quantitation limits were 5.0 µg/mL for At and 0.5 µg/mL for Sc. The quantitative values of total alkaloid calculated using this method were higher (1.3-3.7%) than those obtained using the Japanese Pharmacopoeia Fifteenth Edition (JP15) method. The precision of this method, measured as the standard deviation, was found to be satisfactory and comparable to that of the JP15 method, determined by an analysis of 3 commercial scopolia extract powder samples.


Subject(s)
Atropine/chemistry , Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid/methods , Plant Extracts/chemistry , Scopolamine/chemistry , Scopolia/chemistry , Reproducibility of Results
16.
Int J Legal Med ; 125(2): 211-7, 2011 Mar.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-20623131

ABSTRACT

Some plants have toxicities that are dangerous for humans. In the case of poisoning by toxic plants, a rapid and easy screening test is required for accurate medical treatment or forensic investigation. In this study, we designed specific primer pairs for identification of toxic plants, such as subgenus Aconitum, genus Ricinus, genus Illicium, and genus Scopolia, by internal transcribed spacer sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA. Allied species of target plants, foods, and human DNA were not detected, but each primer pair provided a specific PCR product from the target plant using real-time PCR. This method can detect the subgenus Aconitum, genus Ricinus, and genus Scopolia with template DNA of 10 pg, respectively, and genus Illicium with 1 pg. Furthermore, each primer pair provided the exact PCR product from digested target plants in artificial gastric fluid. When a trace unknown plant sample in forensic investigation is collected from stomach contents, this PCR assay may be useful for screening toxic plants.


Subject(s)
DNA, Plant/analysis , Plants, Toxic/genetics , Polymerase Chain Reaction/methods , Aconitum/classification , Aconitum/genetics , Aconitum/toxicity , DNA Primers , DNA, Plant/genetics , DNA, Ribosomal Spacer/genetics , Humans , Illicium/classification , Illicium/genetics , Illicium/toxicity , Plants, Toxic/classification , Plants, Toxic/toxicity , RNA, Nuclear/analysis , Ricinus/classification , Ricinus/genetics , Ricinus/toxicity , Scopolia/classification , Scopolia/genetics , Scopolia/toxicity
17.
J Nat Prod ; 73(2): 147-50, 2010 Feb 26.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-20141164

ABSTRACT

The production of tropane alkaloids during differentiation and de-differentiation of Scopolia parviflora calli was studied. Tropane alkaloid production drastically decreased during calli de-differentiation. Scopolamine (1) production decreased after 10 days of culture, whereas that of hyoscyamine (2) decreased during de-differentiation of root to calli. The production of 1 was enhanced in calli undergoing differentiation to shoot after 60 days of culture, reaching a maximum by 80 days. However, production of hyoscyamine in regenerated plants was lower. The expression level of hyoscyamine 6beta-hydroxylase (H6H), a key biosynthetic enzyme for tropane alkaloids, was significantly increased in 4-week-old calli. This study suggests that the biosynthesis of tropane alkaloids is regulated inversely in de-differentiating Scopolia parviflora calli.


Subject(s)
Scopolamine/biosynthesis , Scopolia/chemistry , Tropanes/isolation & purification , Korea , Molecular Structure , Plant Roots/chemistry , Scopolia/growth & development , Tropanes/chemistry
18.
Acta Pol Pharm ; 64(3): 241-6, 2007.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-17695147

ABSTRACT

The qualitative and quantitative determinations of coumarins, phenolic acids and flavonoids in the leaves and underground parts of Scopolia caucasica using paper chromatography and HPLC methods were described. From the leaves of this plant, kaempferol 3-O-(2-glucosyl)-galactoside-7-O-glucoside, kaempferol 3-O-(2-glucosyl)-galactoside and quercetin 3-O-glucoside were isolated and identified by spectroscopic methods (UV, 1H- and 13C-NMR).


Subject(s)
Coumarins/isolation & purification , Flavonoids/isolation & purification , Phenols/isolation & purification , Plant Extracts/chemistry , Scopolia/chemistry , Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid , Chromatography, Paper , Flavonoids/chemistry , Phenols/chemistry , Plant Leaves/chemistry , Plant Roots/chemistry , Polyphenols
19.
Bioresour Technol ; 98(9): 1748-53, 2007 Jul.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-16965915

ABSTRACT

The mass production of tropane alkaloids from adventitious root cultures of Scopolia parviflora, in small-scale bubble column bioreactor (BCB) was attempted. Adventitious roots of S. parviflora produced relatively enhanced levels of scopolamine and hyoscyamine in bioreactor compared to flask type cultures, and rapidly produced root clumps, with continuously increasing biomass throughout the culture period. The production of scopolamine and hyoscyamine in the top and bottom regions of root clumps were higher than in the core region. The adventitious root cultures of S. parviflora in the BCB required a relatively high level of aeration. The optimized conditions for the bioreactor culture growth and alkaloid production were found to be 3g of inoculum, on a fresh weight basis, a 15-day culture period and 0.4vvm of airflow. The elicitation by Staphylococus aureus increased the specific compound of scopolamine, while the production of hyoscyamine was slightly inhibited in BCB cultures.


Subject(s)
Alkaloids/biosynthesis , Bioreactors , Plant Roots/metabolism , Scopolia/metabolism , Tropanes/metabolism , Atropine/biosynthesis , Biomass , Cell Culture Techniques/methods , Kinetics , Scopolamine/biosynthesis
20.
J Ethnobiol Ethnomed ; 2: 13, 2006 Mar 02.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-16512899

ABSTRACT

BACKGROUND: The perception and use of plants correspond with common plant names. The study of plant names may give insight into historical and recent use of plants. METHODS: Plant names in dictionaries and folklore have been evaluated. A etymological analysis of the names is provided. Onomasiological and semasiological aspects have been considered. Therefore, species named with names related to each other have been selected. RESULTS: Plant names containing the stem dag- or deg- may belong to either of two categories: incenses or thorny plants. Plants named in durn- have been in use as psychopharmaca. The name rymo points not to Rome but to the use of plants as anodyne or psychopharmaca.


Subject(s)
Datura stramonium/classification , Linguistics , Medicine, Traditional , Plants, Medicinal/classification , Terminology as Topic , Atropa belladonna/classification , Data Collection , Health Knowledge, Attitudes, Practice , Humans , Hyoscyamus/classification , Lithuania , Matricaria/classification , Plant Extracts/classification , Psychotropic Drugs/classification , Scopolia/classification , Social Perception
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