The complete mitochondrial genome of the rodent flea Nosopsyllus laeviceps: genome description, comparative analysis, and phylogenetic implications.

BACKGROUND: Fleas are one of the most common and pervasive ectoparasites worldwide, comprising at least 2500 valid species. They are vectors of several disease-causing agents, such as Yersinia pestis. Despite their significance, however, the molecular genetics, biology, and phylogenetics of fleas remain poorly understood. METHODS: We sequenced, assembled, and annotated the complete mitochondrial (mt) genome of the rodent flea Nosopsyllus laeviceps using next-generation sequencing technology. Then we combined the new mitogenome generated here with mt genomic data available for 23 other flea species to perform comparative mitogenomics, nucleotide diversity, and evolutionary rate analysis. Subsequently, the phylogenetic relationship within the order Siphonaptera was explored using the Bayesian inference (BI) and maximum likelihood (ML) methods based on concentrated data for 13 mt protein-coding genes. RESULTS: The complete mt genome of the rodent flea N. laeviceps was 16,533 base pairs (bp) in a circular DNA molecule, containing 37 typical genes (13 protein-coding genes, 22 transfer RNA [tRNA] genes, and two ribosomal RNA [rRNA] genes) with one large non-coding region (NCR). Comparative analysis among the order Siphonaptera showed a stable gene order with no gene arrangement, and high AT content (76.71-83.21%) with an apparent negative AT and GC skew except in three fleas Aviostivalius klossi bispiniformis, Leptopsylla segnis, and Neopsylla specialis. Moreover, we found robust evidence that the cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (cox1) gene was the most conserved protein-coding gene (Pi = 0.15, non-synonymous/synonymous [Ka/Ks] ratio = 0.13) of fleas. Phylogenomic analysis conducted using two methods revealed different topologies, but both results strongly indicated that (i) the families Ceratophyllidae and Leptopsyllidae were paraphyletic and were the closest to each other, and (ii) the family Ctenophthalmidae was paraphyletic. CONCLUSIONS: In this study, we obtained a high-quality mt genome of the rodent flea N. laeviceps and performed comparative mitogenomics and phylogeny of the order Siphonaptera using the mt database. The results will enrich the mt genome data for fleas, lay a foundation for the phylogenetic analysis of fleas, and promote the evolutionary analysis of Siphonaptera.

Functional similarity affects similarity in partner composition in flea-mammal networks.

Functional signal in an interaction network is a phenomenon in which species resembling each other in their traits interact with similar partners. We tested the functional signal concept in realm-specific and regional flea-host networks from four biogeographic realms and asked whether the species composition of (a) host spectra and (b) flea assemblages is similar between functionally similar flea and host species, respectively. Analogously to testing for phylogenetic signal, we applied Mantel tests to investigate the correlation between flea or host functional distances calculated from functional dendrograms and dissimilarities in sets of interacting partners. In all realm-specific networks, functionally similar fleas tended to exploit similar hosts often belonging to the same genus, whereas functionally similar hosts tended to harbour similar fleas, again often belonging to the same genus. The strength of realm-specific functional signals and the frequency of detecting a significant functional signal in the regional networks differed between realms. The frequency of detecting a significant functional signal in the regional networks correlated positively with the network size for fleas and with the number of hosts in a network for hosts. A functional signal in the regional networks was more frequently found for hosts than for fleas. We discuss the mechanisms behind the functional signal in both fleas and their hosts, relate geographic functional signal patterns to the historic biogeography of fleas and conclude that functional signals in the species composition of host spectra for fleas and of flea assemblages for hosts result from the interplay of evolutionary and ecological processes.

Relationships between functional alpha and beta diversities of flea parasites and their small mammalian hosts.

We studied the relationships between functional alpha and beta diversities of fleas and their small mammalian hosts in 4 biogeographic realms (the Afrotropics, the Nearctic, the Neotropics and the Palearctic), considering 3 components of alpha diversity (functional richness, divergence and regularity). We asked whether (a) flea alpha and beta diversities are driven by host alpha and beta diversities; (b) the variation in the off-host environment affects variation in flea alpha and beta diversities; and (c) the pattern of the relationship between flea and host alpha or beta diversities differs between geographic realms. We analysed alpha diversity using modified phylogenetic generalized least squares and beta diversity using modified phylogenetic generalized dissimilarity modelling. In all realms, flea functional richness and regularity increased with an increase in host functional richness and regularity, respectively, whereas flea functional divergence correlated positively with host functional divergence in the Nearctic only. Environmental effects on the components of flea alpha diversity were found only in the Holarctic realms. Host functional beta diversity was invariantly the best predictor of flea functional beta diversity in all realms, whereas the effects of environmental variables on flea functional beta diversity were much weaker and differed between realms. We conclude that flea functional diversity is mostly driven by host functional diversity, whereas the environmental effects on flea functional diversity vary (a) geographically and (b) between components of functional alpha diversity.

Fleas (Siphonaptera, Latreille, 1825) from Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil: Species Diversity, Hosts, and One Health Approach.

Background: Fleas are ectoparasitic insects with holometabolous development. It has a hematophagous habit with mouthparts adapted to sting and suck its hosts. There are about 3000 species in the world, ∼61 in Brazil, and 19 in Rio Grande do Sul state. The objective of the research is to catalog the diversity of fleas recorded in the state, their respective hosts, and endosymbionts. Materials and Methods: To this end, a search was carried out in the scientific literature, from articles, books, to abstracts submitted to congresses. Results: The 19 species of fleas occurring in Rio Grande do Sul are divided into 7 families and 10 genera. These ectoparasites, in addition to being found in the environment, were associated with 10 different families of hosts in Rio Grande do Sul, and on the endosymbiont, agents found associated with fleas, there were 7 different species. The main agents researched in the state are Rickettsia spp. and Bartonella spp. The relationships between parasites, hosts, environment, and etiological agents present different scenarios, whether anthropized or conserved, but unknown. Sometimes, this overlap, a factor that aggravates the possibility of spillovers, either from cosmopolitan fleas in these conserved areas, or from their endosymbionts. Conclusion: Thus, it is important to characterize the environment so that the complexities of each location are known for the adoption of environmental and public health policies in each case. The challenges are extensive, but necessary in view of the One Health perspective.

Fleas from the Silk Road in Central Asia: identification of Ctenocephalides canis and Ctenocephalides orientis on owned dogs in Uzbekistan using molecular identification and geometric morphometrics.

BACKGROUND: The Silk Road connected the East and West for over 1500 years. Countries in Central Asia are valuable in addressing the hypothesis that parasites on domestic animals were introduced along the Silk Road. Adult fleas are obligate parasites, having worldwide distribution. In dogs, Ctenocephalides canis, C. felis and C. orientis are the most common species identified. The distribution of the Oriental cat flea, C. orientis, is restricted to southeast Asia. The purpose of this study was to determine the diversity of dog fleas from Uzbekistan, a country in Central Asia, with particular reference to C. orientis. METHODS: Fleas were collected from 77 dogs from 5 locations in Uzbekistan. The cox1 gene sequences from Ctenocephalides spp. were compared to global collection of Ctenocephalides cox1 haplotypes. Landmark-based geometric morphometrics have been applied to the head and curvature to compare C. canis and C. canis using canonical variate analysis and discriminant function analysis. RESULTS: Overall, 199 fleas were collected and identified as C. canis (n = 115, 58%), C. orientis (n = 53, 27%) and Pulex irritans (n = 22, 11%). None of the fleas were C. felis. All Ctenocephalides spp. fleas were subject to cox1 amplification and 95% (166/175) yielded DNA sequence. There were 25 cox1 haplotypes; 14 (22/25, 88%) were C. canis cox1 haplotypes and 3 (3/25, 12%) were C. orientis cox1 haplotypes. Molecular analysis confirmed the absence of C. felis. Four (4/22) and one (1/3) cox1 haplotypes were identical to cox1 haplotypes belonging to C. canis and C. orientis cox1 haplotypes identified elsewhere, respectively. Overall morphometric analysis confirmed significant differences between the head shape of C. canis and C. orientis and improved four-fivefold the species identification compared to traditional morphological key. CONCLUSION: We report for the first time the presence of C. orientis in Uzbekistan. Differentiation of C. orientis from C. canis and C. felis remains difficult in regions where these species coexist. Studies in Central and Southeast Asia should confirm species identity using cox1 locus to enable retracing of the distribution of the Ctenocephalides in Asia. The presence of C. orientis suggests that this species may have been introduced from the east along the ancient Silk Road.

Adaptation of gltA and ssrA assays for diversity profiling by Illumina sequencing to identify Bartonella henselae, B. clarridgeiae and B. koehlerae.

Introduction. Bartonellosis is an emerging zoonotic disease caused by bacteria of the genus Bartonella. Mixed Bartonella infections are a well-documented phenomenon in mammals and their ectoparasites. The accurate identification of Bartonella species in single and mixed infections is valuable, as different Bartonella species have varying impacts on infected hosts.Gap Statement. Current diagnostic methods are inadequate at identifying the Bartonella species present in mixed infections.Aim. The aim of this study was to adopt a Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) approach using Illumina sequencing technology to identify Bartonella species and demonstrate that this approach can resolve mixed Bartonella infections.Methodology. We used Illumina PCR amplicon NGS to target the ssrA and gltA genes of Bartonella in fleas collected from cats, dogs and a hedgehog in Israel. We included artificially mixed Bartonella samples to demonstrate the ability for NGS to resolve mixed infections and we compared NGS to traditional Sanger sequencing.Results. In total, we identified 74 Ctenocephalides felis, two Ctenocephalides canis, two Pulex irritans and three Archaeopsylla e. erinacei fleas. Real-time PCR of a subset of 48 fleas revealed that twelve were positive for Bartonella, all of which were cat fleas. Sanger sequencing of the ssrA and gltA genes confirmed the presence of Bartonella henselae, Bartonella clarridgeiae and Bartonella koehlerae. Illumina NGS of ssrA and gltA amplicons further confirmed the Bartonella species identity in all 12 flea samples and unambiguously resolved the artificially mixed Bartonella samples.Conclusion. The adaptation and multiplexing of existing PCR assays for diversity profiling via NGS is a feasible approach that is superior to traditional Sanger sequencing for Bartonella speciation and resolving mixed Bartonella infections. The adaptation of other PCR primers for Illumina NGS will be useful in future studies where mixed bacterial infections may be present.

Illustrated Morphological Keys for Fleas (Siphonaptera) in Madagascar.

Madagascar has an important diversity of fleas (Siphonaptera), which almost species do not exist elsewhere. Scientists have provided huge efforts to improve knowledge on Malagasy fleas since the middle of 1900s particularly by investigating topics such as taxonomy, systematics, biogeography, and flea vector role. Since then, new species discovery has increased and currently, 48 species are recorded which the majority is endemic. Therefore, it becomes necessary to have updated keys to identify species membership. This paper presents morphological-based keys to identify at genus and species levels adult fleas reported as occurring in Madagascar. Illustrations are proposed to make easier the observation of morphological criteria, which may be tricky for sibling species.

Fleas and ticks in armadillos from Argentinean Patagonia: Diversity, abundance and distribution.

In Argentina, quantitative information on the composition and structure of assemblages of arthropod parasites in Xenarthra is scarce. The aim of this study was to describe and compare the community of arthropod parasites of Chaetophractus villosus and Zaedyus pichiy in the Argentinean Patagonia. A total of 1300 ectoparasites (1224 fleas and 76 ticks) were collected from both host species. Seven different species were found, namely Phthiropsylla agenoris, Malacopsylla grossiventris, Hectopsylla broscus, Tunga penetrans, Tunga perforans (Siphonaptera), Amblyomma pseudoconcolor and Amblyomma auricularium s.l. (Ixodida). Four species were present in both host armadillos (P. agenoris, M. grossiventris, H. broscus and A. pseudoconcolor). Phthiropsylla agenoris was the most prevalent and abundant ectoparasite showing significant differences in prevalences, mean intensities and mean abundance. Malacopsylla grossiventris only showed significant differences in mean intensity. The structure and composition of the ectoparasite assemblage and the high values of ectoparasites aggregation recorded in the Patagonian armadillos strongly suggest that these associations are stable throughout their geographical distribution.

Beta and phylogenetic diversities tell complementary stories about ecological networks biogeography.

The beta-diversity of interactions between communities does not necessarily correspond to the differences related to their species composition because interactions show greater variability than species co-occurrence. Additionally, the structure of species interaction networks can itself vary over spatial gradients, thereby adding constraints on the dissimilarity of communities in space. We used published data on the parasitism interaction between fleas and small mammals in 51 regions of the Palearctic to investigate how beta-diversity of networks and phylogenetic diversity are related. The networks could be separated in groups based on the metrics that best described the differences between them, and these groups were also geographically structured. We also found that each network beta-diversity index relates in a particular way with phylogenetically community dissimilarity, reinforcing that some of these indexes have a strong phylogenetic component. Our results clarify important aspects of the biogeography of hosts and parasites communities in Eurasia, while suggesting that networks beta-diversity and phylogenetic dissimilarity interact with the environment in different ways.

Prevalence and Factors Associated with Ectoparasite Infestations in Dogs from the State of Tabasco, Mexico.

This study was carried out to identify the ectoparasites that infest owned dogs in the state of Tabasco, Mexico. In total, 1,302 dogs were sampled in the 5 ecological regions of Tabasco. The dog owners were surveyed to identify the factors associated with infestations. Ectoparasites were identified using taxonomic keys. Eleven species of ectoparasites were observed. General prevalence was 26.65%. Rhipicephalus sanguineus and Ctenocephalides felis were the most prevalent and abundant ectoparasites. The most important factors associated with ectoparasite infestations in the studied dogs were living outdoors, being a non-purebred, having short hair, being dark-haired, and having a body condition <3. Ectoparasite studies such as the one presented herein generate important information to create control programs focused on decreasing infestations in companion animals and thus the likelihood of zoonotic transmission of pathogens.

Description of a new flea species of the genus Ctenophthalmus Kolenati (Siphonaptera: Ctenophthalmidae) from Turkey.

A new ctenophthalmid flea species, Ctenophthalmus (Ctenophthalmus) yesarii n. sp., is described and illustrated. This new species belonging to the fransmiti group is most closely related to Ctenophthalmus (Ctenophthalmus) fransmiti Suciu. Specimens of Ct. yesarii n. sp. were collected from the eastern broad-toothed field mouse, Apodemus mystacinus (Danford & Alston), in Balikesir (Edremit district) province of Turkey. The number of Ctenophthalmus taxa known from Turkey now tallies 41 taxa (27 species and 14 subspecies).

Spatial and temporal variation of compositional, functional, and phylogenetic diversity in ectoparasite infracommunities harboured by small mammals.

We studied patterns of compositional, functional, and phylogenetic α- and ß-diversity in flea and gamasid mite infracommunities of small Siberian mammals, taking into account host-associated (species) and environmental (biome or sampling period) factors. We asked: (a) How do these factors and their interactions affect infracommunity diversity? (b) Does infracommunity composition, in terms of species, traits, and phylogenetic lineages, deviate from random? (c) Are species, traits, and phylogenetic lineages in infracommunities clustered or overdispersed?, and (d) Do patterns of diversity differ between the three diversity facets and/or the two ectoparasite taxa? We found that the α-diversity of infracommunities was strongly affected by host species, biome, and sampling period. The highest proportion of infracommunity diversity in both taxa was associated with the interaction between either host species and biome or host species and sampling period. Infracommunities of both taxa within, as well as between, host species, biomes, and sampling periods were characterized by the clustering of species, traits and lineages. The patterns of the effects of host species, biome, and sampling period on infracommunity diversity were congruent among the three diversity facets in both fleas and mites. We conclude that the assembly patterns in ectoparasite infracommunities mirror those characteristics of component and compound communities.

Host-parasite interactions of rodent hosts and ectoparasite communities from different habitats in Germany.

BACKGROUND: Small mammals are important maintenance hosts of ectoparasites as well as reservoir hosts for many arthropod-borne pathogens. In Germany, only a few studies have investigated ectoparasite communities on small mammals in their natural habitats. The aim of this study was to assess the species diversity and parameters influencing the mean intensity and prevalence of macroscopically visible ectoparasites, such as fleas, predatory mites and ticks. METHODS: A total of 779 small mammals and 3383 ticks were available from earlier investigations for the data analysis of the current study from three differently structured study sites. In addition, fleas and predatory mites were collected from the captured rodents and taxonomically identified. Regression analyses were conducted on the group (ticks/mites/fleas) and species levels using hurdle models for the abundance of ectoparasite groups and a negative binomial model for the abundance of species. RESULTS: Nearly 90% of the small mammals analyzed were infested with ectoparasites, with an average of 7.3 specimens per host. Hosts were infested with up to six species of ectoparasites simultaneously. In total, 12 flea, 11 mite and three tick species were detected. Ticks were more prevalent than fleas or mites, with > 80% of the hosts in urban and forest areas hosting ticks and around 60% of hosts presenting fleas, and only 20-40% of hosts presenting mites. Polyparasitism had a statistically significant influence on the prevalence of the investigated tick, mite and flea species, with odds ratios of > 1.0. Trapping location, season and host characteristics had significant influences on some-but not all-of the investigated species. CONCLUSIONS: The diversity of flea species was unexpectedly high and higher than that reported in comparable studies, which can be explained by the differently structured habitats and regions examined in this study. Polyparasitism was a key influencing factor and had a positive effect on the prevalence and/or abundance of the predominant tick, flea and mite species occurring on small mammals. Season, trapping location, host species and sex of the host species also had an influence on the prevalence and mean intensity of certain, but not all, ectoparasite species.

Colonization of a novel host by fleas: changes in egg production and egg size.

We studied the success of fleas, Synosternus cleopatrae and Xenopsylla ramesis, in switching to a novel host by establishing experimental lines maintained on different hosts for 18 generations. Fleas fed on principal (P-line) or novel hosts, either sympatric with (S-line) or allopatric to (A-line) a flea and its principal host, then we assessed their reproductive performance via the number and size of eggs. We compared reproductive performance between hosts within a line and between lines within a host asking: (a) whether fleas adapt to a novel host species after multiple generations; (b) if yes, whether the pattern of adaptation differs between novel host species sympatric with or allopatric to a flea and its principal host; and (c) adaptation to a novel host is accompanied with a loss of success in exploitation of an original host. Fleas from the S- and A-lines increased their egg production on a novel host (except X. ramesis from the S-line). S. cleopatrae from the S-line but not the A-line increased egg size on a novel host, whereas X. ramesis from the A-line but not the S-line produced larger eggs from a novel host. We found no indication of a loss of reproductive performance on the original host while adapting to a novel host. We conclude that fleas are able to switch rapidly to a new host with the pattern of a switch to either sympatric or an allopatric host depending on the identities of both flea and host species.

Molecular Differentiation of Four Species of Oropsylla (Siphonaptera: Ceratophyllidae) Using PCR-Based Single Strand Conformation Polymorphism Analyses and DNA Sequencing.

It is often difficult to distinguish morphologically between closely related species of fleas (Siphonaptera). Morphological identification of fleas often requires microscopic examination of internal structures in specimens cleared using caustic solutions. This process degrades DNA and/or inhibits DNA extraction from specimens, which limits molecular-based studies on individual fleas and their microbiomes. Our objective was to distinguish between Oropsylla rupestris (Jordan), Oropsylla tuberculata (Baker), Oropsylla bruneri (Baker), and Oropsylla labis (Jordan & Rothschild) (Ceratophyllidae) using PCR-based single strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP) analyses and DNA sequencing. A 446 bp region of the nuclear 28S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene was used as the genetic marker. The results obtained for 36 reference specimens (i.e., fleas that were morphologically identified to species) revealed no intraspecific variation in DNA sequence, whereas the DNA sequences of the four species of Oropsylla differed from one another at two to six nucleotide positions. Each flea species also had a unique SSCP banding pattern. SSCP analyses were then used to identify another 84 fleas that had not been identified morphologically. DNA sequencing data confirmed the species identity of fleas subjected to SSCP. This demonstrates that PCR-SSCP combined with DNA sequencing of the 28S rRNA gene is a very effective approach for the delineation of four closely related species of flea.

Diversity, distribution and changes in communities of fleas on small mammals along the elevational gradient from the Pannonian Plain to the Carpathian Mountains.

The causal chain of parasite-host-environment interactions, the so-called 'dual parasite environment', makes studying parasites more complicated than other wild organisms. A sample of 65 282 fleas taken from 336 different locations were analysed for changes in the distribution, diversity and compensation of flea communities found on small mammals along an elevational diversity gradient ranging from the Pannonian Plain to the base of the Carpathian summits. The fleas were divided into four groups, which were derived from changes in abundance and occurrence determined from cluster analysis. They are (1) flea species whose range seems unrelated to any change in elevation; (2) species that avoid high altitudes; (3) a group that can be subdivided into two types: (i) host-specific fleas and (ii) mountains species and (4) species opting for high altitudes on the gradient or preferring lower to middle elevations below 1000 m. Our study showed a unimodal pattern of flea diversity along the elevational gradient. It indicated that seasonality significantly conditions changes in biodiversity and patterns of spatial change along the elevational gradient, with specific flea species influenced by their host, while the impact of environmental conditions is more pronounced in opportunistic flea species.

Infection rate and molecular characterization of Echidnophaga gallinacea in chickens from Matrouh Governorate, Egypt.

Echidnophaga gallinacea is the sticktight flea of chickens. It causes dermatitis and ulcers in the skin and carries some disease-causing agents such as Rickettsia and Bartonella. This study was conducted to detect the infection rate and elucidate the molecular characterization of E. gallinacea in chickens from El-Dabaa City, Matrouh Governorate, Egypt. The fleas were collected from infected chickens and identified morphologically. The internal transcribed spacer-1 (ITS-1) gene PCR method was used for molecular characterization. Based on the morphology, the collected fleas were confirmed as E. gallinacea. The overall infection rate was 5%, with 4.5% in female and 10% in male chickens. ITS-1 PCR revealed a specific band of 488 bp. The ITS-1 gene sequence from Egypt occurred in the same phylogenetic clade as that from Cameroon, with a percentage identity of 98.47%.

Hopping species and borders: detection of Bartonella spp. in avian nest fleas and arctic foxes from Nunavut, Canada.

BACKGROUND: In a warmer and more globally connected Arctic, vector-borne pathogens of zoonotic importance may be increasing in prevalence in native wildlife. Recently, Bartonella henselae, the causative agent of cat scratch fever, was detected in blood collected from arctic foxes (Vulpes lagopus) that were captured and released in the large goose colony at Karrak Lake, Nunavut, Canada. This bacterium is generally associated with cats and cat fleas, which are absent from Arctic ecosystems. Arctic foxes in this region feed extensively on migratory geese, their eggs, and their goslings. Thus, we hypothesized that a nest flea, Ceratophyllus vagabundus vagabundus (Boheman, 1865), may serve as a vector for transmission of Bartonella spp. METHODS: We determined the prevalence of Bartonella spp. in (i) nest fleas collected from 5 arctic fox dens and (ii) 37 surrounding goose nests, (iii) fleas collected from 20 geese harvested during arrival at the nesting grounds and (iv) blood clots from 57 adult live-captured arctic foxes. A subsample of fleas were identified morphologically as C. v. vagabundus. Remaining fleas were pooled for each nest, den, or host. DNA was extracted from flea pools and blood clots and analyzed with conventional and real-time polymerase chain reactions targeting the 16S-23S rRNA intergenic transcribed spacer region. RESULTS: Bartonella henselae was identified in 43% of pooled flea samples from nests and 40% of pooled flea samples from fox dens. Bartonella vinsonii berkhoffii was identified in 30% of pooled flea samples collected from 20 geese. Both B. vinsonii berkhoffii (n = 2) and B. rochalimae (n = 1) were identified in the blood of foxes. CONCLUSIONS: We confirm that B. henselae, B. vinsonii berkhoffii and B. rochalimae circulate in the Karrak Lake ecosystem and that nest fleas contain B. vinsonii and B. henselae DNA, suggesting that this flea may serve as a potential vector for transmission among Arctic wildlife.

Fleas and flea-borne diseases of North Africa.

North Africa has an interesting and rich wildlife including hematophagous arthropods, and specifically fleas, which constitute a large part of the North African fauna, and are recognised vectors of several zoonotic bacteria. Flea-borne organisms are widely distributed throughout the world in endemic disease foci, where components of the enzootic cycle are present. Furthermore, flea-borne diseases could re-emerge in epidemic form because of changes in the vector-host ecology due to environmental and human behaviour modifications. We need to know the real incidences of flea-borne diseases in the world due to this incidence could be much greater than are generally recognized by physicians and health authorities. As a result, diagnosis and treatment are often delayed by health care professionals who are unaware of the presence of these infections and thus do not take them into consideration when attempting to determine the cause of a patient's illness. In this context, this bibliographic review aims to summarise the main species of fleas present in North Africa, their geographical distribution, flea-borne diseases, and their possible re-emergence.

Taxonomic revision of the flea genus AgastopsyllaJordan & Rothschild 1923 (Siphonaptera: Ctenophthalmidae).

Fleas of Argentina are receiving renewed systematic interest, but the identification of many species associated with small mammals can be problematic. We review the taxonomy of the flea genus Agastopsylla including the re-description of two species and one subspecies, and designate neotype and neallotype for Agastopsylla hirsutior, neotype for Agastopsylla nylota nylota from the "Colección Mamíferos Lillo Anexos" (CMLA), Universidad Nacional de Tucumán, Argentina, and neotype and neallotype for Agastopsylla pearsoni from the Natural History Museum (London, U.K.). Additionally, a key to identification of the species of Agastopsylla and a distribution map of the species of the genus are included.