Has horsepox become extinct?

Mystery surrounds the extent to which horsepox virus may have contributed to the vaccinia virus used to eradicate smallpox. With few documented cases of horsepox in recent years it may never be solved, says José Esparza, who seeks to raise awareness of the potential historical and  scientific importance of identifying new cases.

Europe, the bull and the Minotaur: the biological legacy of a Neolithic love story.

The European cattle was domesticated 10 000 years ago in eastern Turkey, 1000 years later pottery-associated milk fats identify cattle-based dairy activity in western Turkey. Subsequently, the Indo-European language, domesticated animals and plants travel as a Neolithic package along two major routes across Europe. A striking south-east to north-west gradient of a mutation in the current European population (lactase persistence into adulthood) documents the expansion of a Neolithic dairy culture into a Mesolithic hunter society. Using oral tradition (myths), archaeological and written historical evidence and biological data, it is asked whether highly transmissible viral diseases like measles and smallpox entered during the Neolithic from domesticated animals into the human population. The bovine origin of paramyxovirus infections is likely; smallpox comes from camels or from rodents via cattle while mycobacteria and Helicobacter infected humans already before the Neolithic. Microbes adapt constantly and quickly to changing ecological situations. The current global environmental changes will lead to another highly dynamic phase of viral transmissions into the human population.

Amplification refractory mutation system PCR assays for the detection of variola and Orthopoxvirus.

PCR assays that can identify the presence of variola virus (VARV) sequences in an unknown DNA sample were developed using principles established for the amplification refractory mutation system (ARMS). The assay's specificity utilised unique single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) identified among Orthopoxvirus (OPV) orthologs of the vaccinia virus Copenhagen strain A13L and A36R genes. When a variola virus specific primer was used with a consensus primer in an ARMS assay with different Orthopoxvirus genomes, a PCR product was only amplified from variola virus DNA. Incorporating a second consensus primer into the assay produced a multiplex PCR that provided Orthopoxvirus generic and variola-specific products with variola virus DNA. We tested two single nucleotide polymorphisms with a panel of 43 variola virus strains, collected over 40 years from countries across the world, and have shown that they provide reliable markers for variola virus identification. The variola virus specific primers did not produce amplicons with either assay format when tested with 50 other Orthopoxvirus DNA samples. Our analysis shows that these two polymorphisms were conserved in variola virus genomes and provide a reliable signature of Orthopoxvirus species identification.

[Goat smallpox in Chad: study of the pathogeny of the virus in sheep and goats]. / Variole caprine au Tchad: étude du pouvoir pathogène du virus chez les ovins et les caprins.

A local strain of goat pox virus was tested in goats and sheep. The results showed that 65% of goats and 20% of sheep reacted positively. Only goats died few days after the inoculation (55%) and no mortality was recorded in the sheep. The strict species specificity of this strain was not observed. The difference of sensitivity between sheep and goats was statistically significant.

[Note on goat pox in Chad: study of the foci]. / Note sur la variole caprine au Tchad: étude des foyers.

Several outbreaks of goat-pox were observed from 1985 to 1989 in different villages of the N'Djamena area. The virus strain circulating in this region seemed to be host-specific for goats since sheep kept in contact with goats did not suffer from the disease. Nevertheless, it has to be studied further on whether the virus isolated from sick goats could be pathogenic for sheep.

[Properties of an orthopoxvirus strain isolated from camels in Niger]. / Propriétés d'une souche d'orthopoxvirus isolée des dromadaires du Niger.

The VD47 viral strain, isolated from camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Niger possesses camelpoxvirus morphology and characteristic properties: heat sensitive, ether resistant, chloroform and IDU sensitive, with ceiling-temperature 38.5 degrees C. It induces formation of syncytial and retracted cell foci with hemadsorption test positive. No pathogen for mice and very mildly for rabbits, this virus is neutralizable by anti-vaccine serum. The question of camelpoxvirus and camelparapoxvirus pathogenicity for human is discussed by the authors.

[Results of examining wild monkeys for the presence of smallpox antibodies and smallpox group viruses]. / Rezul'taty obsledovaniia dikozhivushchikh obez'ian na nalichie protivoospennykh antitel i virusov ospennoi gruppy

The results of examinations of sera, blood and organs of different species of monkeys from some Asian and African countries for the presence of antibody to smallpox and viruses of the smallpox group. Significant titers of smallpox antibodies (antihemagglutinins virus-neutralizing and, in some cases, precipitating antibody) were found in a considerable number of monkeys shot near foci with human cases (Equatorial province of Zair Republic). In the same monkeys kidney tissues yielded 3 isolates of smallpox virus group two of which were indistinguishable in the laboratory tests from variola virus. On the basis of these data it is concluded that smallpox viruses circulate among wildlife monkeys in some areas of Equatorial Africa. Further studies along these lines are necessary.

[Use of electron microscopy for the rapid diagnosis of poxvirus diseases (smallpox) in swine]. / Vyuzití elektronové mikroskopie k rychlé diagnostice poxvirového onemocnení (nestovic) prasat

For a rapid proving of the pig pox virus in the skin of naturally infected pigs, the simple electron microscopic method of negative staining was used. The result was checked by means of the finding of intracytoplasmatic inclusions in the histological sections and the proving of the presence of virions in the ultra-thin sections through the cells of the epidermis.

Smallpox and monkeypox in non-human primates.

In considering global eradication of smallpox the absence of an animal reservoir is important. Present knowledge of experimental infection of non-human primates with variola virus and of a related virus infection in monkeys, termed monkeypox, is examined.From the literature review and the results of a survey of captive monkeys in 26 major biological institutions it is concluded that outbreaks of supposed smallpox and monkeypox are not frequent and that man may be comparatively insusceptible to monkeypox. A natural reservoir of smallpox in non-human primates is thought to be unlikely although further studies are warranted since the survey reveals that certain species of monkeys can be infected with smallpox and that infected monkeys can transmit infection to others.