Understanding the nature and dimensions of litigation crowdfunding: A visual analytics approach.

The escalating cost of civil litigation is leaving many defendants and plaintiffs unable to meet legal expenses such as attorney fees, court charges and others. This significantly impacts their ability to sue or defend themselves effectively. Related to this phenomenon is the ethics discussion around access to justice and crowdfunding. This article explores the dimensions that explain the phenomenon of litigation crowdfunding. Using data from CrowdJustice, a popular Internet fundraising platform used to assist in turning legal cases into publicly funded social cases, we study litigation crowdfunding through the lenses of the number of pledges, goal achievement, target amount, length of description, country, case category, and others. Overall, we see a higher number of cases seeking funding in the categories of human rights, environment, and judicial review. Meanwhile, the platform offers access to funding for other less prominent categories, such as voting rights, personal injury, intellectual property, and data & privacy. At the same time, donors are willing to donate more to cases related to health, politics, and public services. Also noteworthy is that while donors are willing to donate to education, animal welfare, data & privacy, and inquest-related cases, they are not willing to donate large sums to these causes. In terms of lawyer/law firm status, donors are more willing to donate to cases assisted by experienced lawyers. Furthermore, we also note that the higher the number of successful cases an attorney presents, the greater the amount raised. We analyzed valence, arousal, and dominance in case description and found they have a positive relationship with funds raised. Also, when a case description is updated on a crowdsourcing site, it ends up being more successful in funding-at least in the categories of health, immigration, and judicial review. This is not the case, however, for categories such as public service, human rights, and environment. Our research addresses whether litigation crowdfunding, in particular, levels the playing field in terms of opening up financing opportunities for those individuals who cannot afford the costs of litigation. While it may support social justice, ethical concerns with regards to the kinds of campaigns must also be addressed. Most of the ethical concerns center around issues relating to both the fundraisers and donors. Our findings have ethical and social justice implications for crowdfunding platform design.

[Argentinian women and the uses of drugs: A sociohistorical analysis of female drug use in Argentina (1860-1930)]. / Mujeres argentinas y usos de drogas: análisis sociohistórico del uso femenino de sustancias psicoactivas en Argentina (1860-1930).

This article describes cases presented by experts from the legislative and medical-legal fields regarding the use of psychoactive substances among Argentinian women from 1878 to 1930. Background information is presented regarding the relationship between women and the use different drugs, medical interventions on the female body where psychoactive substances were used are analyzed, and experts' descriptions of cases of female drug users are detailed. Experts' discourses during this period did not attempt to comprehend the specificities of female consumption, but were rather used to position the issue of drug use as a social problem. This was done using three prototypes: the victim of a sick husband; the prostitute who encourages drug use among the weak in spirit (natural-born criminals); and the virtuous young woman who succumbs to drug addiction in spite of her father's rule. Each figure reinforces the need for state intervention and increased social control.

Este trabajo describe casos expuestos por expertos de los ámbitos legislativo y médico-legal periodístico, en los que se reporta el consumo de sustancias psicoactivas por parte de mujeres de Argentina, entre 1878 y 1930. Se presentan antecedentes sobre mujeres y usos de distintos fármacos, se analizan las intervenciones médicas que utilizan sustancias psicoactivas sobre el cuerpo femenino, y se detallan los casos de mujeres consumidoras desde las miradas expertas. En este periodo, los discursos expertos no buscaron comprender la especificidad femenina del consumo, sino promover el tema drogas como un problema. Esto se produce utilizando tres prototipos: la víctima de un marido enfermo, la prostituta que envicia a los débiles de espíritu (criminal nata), y la joven virtuosa que contraviene la ley del padre y sucumbe en la toxicomanía. Cada figura refuerza la necesidad de intervención estatal y control social.

Information Disorder Syndrome and Its Management.

Many of us may be unknowingly suffering from information disorder syndrome. It is more prevalent due to the digitized world where the information flows to every individual's phone, tablet and computer in no time. Information disorder syndrome is the sharing or developing of false information with or without the intent of harming and they are categorized as misinformation, disinformation and malinformation. The severity of the syndrome is categorized into three grades. Grade 1 is a milder form in which the individual shares false information without the intent of harming others. Grade 2 is a moderate form in which the individual develops and shares false information with the intent of making money and political gain, but not with the intent of harming people. Grade 3 is a severe form in which the individual develops and shares false information with the intent of harming others. The management of this disorder requires the management of false information, which is rumor surveillance, targeted messaging and community engagement. Repeated sufferers at the Grade 1 level, all sufferers from grade 2 and 3 levels need psycho-social counseling and sometimes require strong regulations and enforcement to control such information disorder. The most critical intervention is to be mindful of the fact that not all posts in social media and news are real, and need to be interpreted carefully.

[Special and marginal: towards a problematization of the state intervention regarding the health of Malvinas veterans (1984-2000)]. / Especial y marginal: hacia una problematización de la intervención estatal en la salud de los veteranos de Malvinas (1984-2000).

The aim of this paper is to account for the modalities in which Malvinas veterans' health was constituted as a problem requiring state intervention between 1984 and 2000. In order to do so, we have focused on the concept of problematization as a way to analyze practices and political thought. The text consists of three sections: the first one presents the methodological basis of the analysis of public policies, whereas the second and third ones intend to analyze a series of laws, bills, decrees, reports and other documents produced by different state spheres about war veterans and their health situation. The hypothesis that we propose is that the Malvinas veterans were problematized as a marginal segment of the population, although the stabilization of a specific treatment took more than fifteen years to materialize.

El objetivo de este artículo es dar cuenta de las modalidades en que fue instituida la salud del veterano argentino de la guerra de Malvinas como un problema de intervención estatal entre 1984 y 2000. Para ello nos centramos en el concepto de problematización como un modo de análisis de las prácticas y el pensamiento político. El texto consta de tres apartados: en el primero se presentan las bases metodológicas para el análisis de las políticas públicas, mientras que el segundo y el tercero están destinados al análisis de una serie de leyes, proyectos de ley, decretos, informes, etc., producidos por diferentes esferas estatales en torno al veterano de guerra y su situación sanitaria. La hipótesis de lectura que proponemos es que el veterano o excombatiente de Malvinas fue problematizado como un segmento poblacional marginal, aunque la estabilización de un tratamiento específico tardó más de quince años en materializarse.

Especial y marginal: hacia una problematización de la intervención estatal en la salud de los veteranos de Malvinas (1984-2000) / Special and marginal: towards a problematization of the state intervention regarding the health of Malvinas veterans (1984-2000)

RESUMEN El objetivo de este artículo es dar cuenta de las modalidades en que fue instituida la salud del veterano argentino de la guerra de Malvinas como un problema de intervención estatal entre 1984 y 2000. Para ello nos centramos en el concepto de problematización como un modo de análisis de las prácticas y el pensamiento político. El texto consta de tres apartados: en el primero se presentan las bases metodológicas para el análisis de las políticas públicas, mientras que el segundo y el tercero están destinados al análisis de una serie de leyes, proyectos de ley, decretos, informes, etc., producidos por diferentes esferas estatales en torno al veterano de guerra y su situación sanitaria. La hipótesis de lectura que proponemos es que el veterano o excombatiente de Malvinas fue problematizado como un segmento poblacional marginal, aunque la estabilización de un tratamiento específico tardó más de quince años en materializarse.

ABSTRACT The aim of this paper is to account for the modalities in which Malvinas veterans' health was constituted as a problem requiring state intervention between 1984 and 2000. In order to do so, we have focused on the concept of problematization as a way to analyze practices and political thought. The text consists of three sections: the first one presents the methodological basis of the analysis of public policies, whereas the second and third ones intend to analyze a series of laws, bills, decrees, reports and other documents produced by different state spheres about war veterans and their health situation. The hypothesis that we propose is that the Malvinas veterans were problematized as a marginal segment of the population, although the stabilization of a specific treatment took more than fifteen years to materialize

How Has the Presence of Zimbabwe's Victim-Friendly Court and Relevant Child Protection Policy and Legal Frameworks Affected the Management of Intrafamilial Child Sexual Abuse in Zimbabwe? The Case of Marondera District.

The study intended to assess, based on the perceptions of Victim-Friendly Court (VFC) professionals in Marondera District in Zimbabwe, how the presence of the VFC and relevant child protection policy and legal frameworks has affected the management of Intrafamilial Child Sexual Abuse (ICSA) in Zimbabwe. Sem-istructured questionnaires were administered to 25 professionals from 13 VFC agencies in Marondera, while one-on-one semi-structured interviews were conducted with 15 key informants who included five ICSA survivors and their respective five caregivers as well as five key community child protection committee members. All 40 participants were selected using purposive sampling. Data were analyzed manually using thematic analysis, descriptive analysis, and document analysis. The study showed that the VFC manages ICSA through prevention, protection, treatment, and support interventions, and that its mandate is guided by key child protection policy and legal frameworks, particularly the National Action Plan for Orphaned and Vulnerable Children and the Children's Act (Chapter 5:06). The presence of these mechanisms is perceived to have resulted in increased awareness of ICSA, realization of effective results, increased reporting of ICSA, and enhanced coordination among VFC agencies. However, the same frameworks are perceived to be fraught with gaps and inconsistencies, too prescriptive, incoherent with some key aspects of the National Constitution and international child rights standards, and poorly resourced for effective implementation. All this has negatively affected the management of ICSA. Therefore, the Government of Zimbabwe should consistently review these systems to make them responsive to the ever-evolving factors associated with ICSA. Also, alignment with the National Constitution, full domestication of global child rights instruments, and routine collection of better statistics for evidence-based policy- and decision-making, and for better monitoring of progress and evaluation of outcomes, are necessary for positive results. Non-governmental stakeholders too should chip in with human, technical, and financial resources to enhance effective management of the social problem.

Prosocial reasoning and emotions in young offenders and non-offenders / Razonamiento prosocial y emociones en adolescentes delincuentes y no delincuentes

The aim of this study was to analyse the cognitive processes (prosocial moral reasoning, perspective taking) and emotional processes (empathic concern, emotional instability, state-trait anger) which interact in predicting aggressive behaviour and prosocial behaviour of adolescents who have committed a crime and those who have not, for the purpose of establishing the predictor variables in both groups. Participants were 440 adolescents, 220 of them young offenders residing in four youth detention centres in Valencia, in which they were serving court sentences (67.3% men and 32.7% women). The other 220 were enrolled in public and private schools within the metropolitan area of Valencia (65.9% men and 34.1% women). The two subsamples were equated in age (15-18 years) and sex, controlling the representation of social classes. Prosocial moral reasoning, empathy, emotional instability, state-trait anger, prosocial behaviour, and physical and verbal aggression were assessed. Hierarchical regression analyses show the differential weight of positive emotions (empathic concern) and negative emotions (emotional instability and anger) in relation to prosocial moral reasoning in predicting aggressive behaviour in adolescents, especially offenders. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for prevention and re-education oriented to social reinsertion of young offenders (AU)

El objetivo de este estudio ha sido analizar los procesos cognitivos (razonamiento moral prosocial, toma de perspectiva) y los procesos emocionales (preocupación empática, inestabilidad emocional, ira estado-rasgo) que interactúan en la predicción de la conducta agresiva y de la conducta prosocial de los adolescentes que han delinquido y los que no, con la finalidad de establecer las variables predictoras en ambos grupos. La muestra constaba de 440 adolescentes, 220 de los cuales eran adolescentes infractores internos en cuatro centros de menores de la Comunidad Valenciana, en los que estaban cumpliendo medidas judiciales (67.3% varones y 32.7% mujeres) y los 220 restantes estaban escolarizados en centros públicos y concertados dentro del área metropolitana de Valencia (65.9% varones y 34.1% mujeres). Se equipararon las dos submuestras en edad (15-18 años) y sexo, controlando la representación de las clases sociales. Se evaluó el razonamiento moral prosocial, la empatía, la inestabilidad emocional, la ira estado-rasgo, la conducta prosocial y la agresividad física y verbal. Los análisis de regresión jerárquica realizados muestran el peso diferencial de las emociones positivas (preocupación empática) y negativas (inestabilidad emocional e ira) en relación con el razonamiento moral prosocial en la predicción de la conducta agresiva de los adolescentes, especialmente los infractores. Se comentan los resultados en cuanto a sus implicaciones para la prevención y la reeducación orientada a la reinserción social de los jóvenes infractores (AU)

Pediatric Firearm-Related Injuries in the United States.

Pediatric firearm-related deaths and injuries are a national public health crisis. In this Special Review Article, we characterize the epidemiology of firearm-related injuries in the United States and discuss public health programs, the role of pediatricians, and legislative efforts to address this health crisis. Firearm-related injuries are leading causes of unintentional injury deaths in children and adolescents. Children are more likely to be victims of unintentional injuries, the majority of which occur in the home, and adolescents are more likely to suffer from intentional injuries due to either assault or suicide attempts. Guns are present in 18% to 64% of US households, with significant variability by geographic region. Almost 40% of parents erroneously believe their children are unaware of the storage location of household guns, and 22% of parents wrongly believe that their children have never handled household guns. Public health interventions to increase firearm safety have demonstrated varying results, but the most effective programs have provided free gun safety devices to families. Pediatricians should continue working to reduce gun violence by asking patients and their families about firearm access, encouraging safe storage, and supporting firearm-related injury prevention research. Pediatricians should also play a role in educating trainees about gun violence. From a legislative perspective, universal background checks have been shown to decrease firearm homicides across all ages, and child safety laws have been shown to decrease unintentional firearm deaths and suicide deaths in youth. A collective, data-driven public health approach is crucial to halt the epidemic of pediatric firearm-related injury.

Homeless Liaisons' Perceptions of McKinney-Vento Act Implementation: Examining Geographical Trends and Differences.

The number of children experiencing homelessness continues to rise at alarming rates. Schools are on the front lines of service delivery and face numerous barriers in an attempt to meet the educational and psychosocial needs of these children. This study explored the perceptions of homeless liaisons in three states about the implementation of the McKinney Vento Act within the school districts. While no differences were found across the states, significant differences were found between rural and urban geographic densities in the perceived implementation of the federal legislation. The significant differences relate to collaboration within the community and resonate with the lack of resources available to the families experiencing homelessness in rural areas.

Gender, intoxication and the developing brain: Problematisations of drinking among young adults in Australian alcohol policy.

In this article, we draw on recent scholarly work in the poststructuralist analysis of policy to consider how policy itself functions as a key site in the constitution of alcohol 'problems', and the political implications of these problematisations. We do this by examining Australian alcohol policy as it relates to young adults (18-24 years old). Our critical analysis focuses on three national alcohol policies (1990, 2001 and 2006) and two Victorian state alcohol policies (2008 and 2013), which together span a 25-year period. We argue that Australian alcohol policies have conspicuously ignored young adult men, despite their ongoing over-representation in the statistical 'evidence base' on alcohol-related harm, while increasingly problematising alcohol consumption amongst other population subgroups. We also identify the development of a new problem representation in Australian alcohol policy, that of 'intoxication' as the leading cause of alcohol-related harm and rising hospital admissions, and argue that changes in the classification and diagnosis of intoxication may have contributed to its prioritisation and problematisation in alcohol policy at the expense of other forms of harm. Finally, we draw attention to how preliminary and inconclusive research on the purported association between binge drinking and brain development in those under 25 years old has been mobilised prematurely to support calls to increase the legal purchasing age from 18 to 21 years. Our critical analysis of the treatment of these three issues - gender, intoxication, and brain development - is intended to highlight the ways in which policy functions as a key site in the constitution of alcohol 'problems'.

[Pharmacological properties of law-evading chemical substances].

In recent years, frequent cases of people suffering disturbed consciousness, dyspnea, etc. due to abuse of synthetic cannabis and being transported by ambulance or causing traffic accidents are occurring and are becoming a serious social problem in Japan. Most law-evading herbal products have colorful illustrations and logos and are sold as incense or herbs. Law-evading herbal products consist of finely chopped dry vegetative matter mixed with chemical substances (drugs), and the drugs are injurious to health. Analysis of chemical substances in herbal products clarified that they contain synthetic cannabinoid, a chemical component that exhibits action similar to that of hemp. There are many affinity compounds of cannabinoid, so presently, even if a particular drug is regulated, similar compounds that partially differ in structure will propagate. There is thus a cat-and-mouse game between regulations on chemical substances and their propagation. This paper summarizes the pharmacological actions and danger of chemical substances contained in law-evading herbal products by focusing on synthetic cannabinoid or synthetic cathinone, a chemical substance it contains.

A border context of violence: Mexican female sex workers on the U.S.-Mexico border.

Female sex workers (FSW) represent a population confronted with an array of intersecting social problems. We explore the case of FSW in Nuevo Laredo and Ciudad Juarez to understand the everyday violence associated with sex work within the unique context of Mexico. Life history interviews were conducted with 109 FSW revealing violent acts by clients and other sex industry employees (bar owners, police, other FSW). The risk of violence by different types of persons associated with the sex work industry varied by venue and geographic area. Moreover, the violence was shaped by the social structural constraints of dominant gender ideologies.

El problema del aborto en Santiago del Estero: su magnitud y costos humanos, sociales y económicos / The problem of abortion in Santiago del Estero: its magnitude and human, social and economic costs

La medición precisa del aborto es un reto metodológico ya que son muchos los factores que afectan la voluntad de reportar estos eventos (condición legal, valores y creencias éticas,...); el sub registro se presenta en la mayoría de los países (aún en donde el aborto es legal), pero las estimaciones confiables son necesarias para resolver el problema del aborto inseguro. El objetivo de esta investigación ha sido conocer la magnitud del aborto en Santiago del Estero (tasa-razón), sus costos humanos, sociales, económicos y estimar la mortalidad materna por esta causa en los últimos ocho años. También se trabajó para describir el conocimiento y compromiso sobre el problema del aborto de los/las profesionales ligados a la atención de los casos, identificando los procedimientos utilizados. Además se analizaron los costos sociales y económicos que causa el aborto, para finalmente establecer posibles estrategias de prevención. Se elaboró un diseño metodológico dirigido a captar las dimensiones cuantitativas y cualitativas del fenómeno en estudio. Para el aspecto cuantitativo se aplicó un método retrospectivo propuesto por Singh y Wulf (1994) para países donde las leyes sobre aborto son severamente restrictivas, aplicado también en otras investigaciones de sudamérica y que se detalla mas adelante. Para aportar en el aspecto cualitativo una segunda fase de investigación se elaboró un trabajo de campo mediante encuestas, entrevistas semi estructuradas y grupos focales a una muestra que surgió del análisis a profesionales que intervienen en casos de aborto; médicos/as (gineco-obstetras, anestesistas), no médicos/as (Obstétricas/os y Enfermeras/os) y algunas mujeres que interrumpieron su embarazo voluntariamente entre los años 2001 y 2012...

Precise measurement of abortion is a methodological challenge because there are many factors that affect the willingness to report these events (legal status, ethical values and beliefs, ...); the underreporting occurs in most countries (even where abortion is legal), but reliable estimates are needed to solve the problem of unsafe abortion. The objective of this research was to determine the magnitude of abortion in Santiago del Estero (rate-ratio), human, social, economic costs and estimating maternal mortality from this cause in the past eight years. It also worked to describe the knowledge and commitment on the issue of abortion / professional related to the treatment of cases, identifying the procedures used. Besides the social and economic costs were analyzed that causes abortion, to finally establish prevention strategies. Methodological design aimed to capture both quantitative and qualitative dimensions of the phenomenon under study was developed. To quantitatively proposed by Singh and Wulf (1994) retrospective method for countries where abortion laws are severely restrictive, also applied in other studies in South America and is detailed later applied. To bring in a second phase qualitative aspect of research fieldwork was developed through surveys, semi-structured interviews and focus groups with a sample that emerged from analysis to professionals involved in cases of abortion; medical / as (obstetrician-gynecologists, anesthetists), medical / as (Obstetric / os and Nurses / os) and some women who voluntarily terminated their pregnancies between 2001 and 2012...

The role of doctors in the slave trade during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries within the Kingdom of Valencia (Crown of Aragon).

Slavery had become increasingly widespread throughout the entire Mediterranean region during the late Middle Ages. At the same time, a new form of medicine (based upon the Galenism to which the universities gave voice), together with the practice thereof and its practitioners, had gained ground. Detailed evidence from the Kingdom of Valencia enables us to study these two topics, namely slavery and the new medicine. This article illustrates how doctors came to play a highly active role in the slave trade through the assistance they provided in preventing and rectifying any instances of fraud therein.

An all-embracing problem description. The Swedish drug issue as a political catalyst 1982-2000.

BACKGROUND: This article examines the political formulation and ideological solution of the Swedish drug problem in 1982-2000. How was the drug problem described in the Swedish parliament at the time? How serious was the problem and what solutions were proposed? What were the ideological implications of the problem description, and how was the general political and ideological solution formulated? METHODS: The empirical basis for the textual analysis consists of parliamentary bills, government bills and parliamentary records discussing the drug issue during the years 1982-2000. RESULTS: In the prevailing spirit of consensus in the Swedish parliament at the time, both left-wing and right-wing parties portrayed drugs as a threat to the nation, people and the welfare state. Still, as the ideological dimension kept growing stronger, the drug question functioned even better as an arena for political discussions and ideological positions than in the 1970s. CONCLUSION: Compared to previous decades, the problem description broadened during the 1980s and 1990s, and the drug problem could be used to support arguments on almost any topic. The drug problem became a highly politicized issue about whom or what to change when the individual and the society clashed, but also about what the individual and/or society should be changed into.

Arguments in favour of compulsory treatment of opioid dependence.

Twelve agencies of the United Nations, including the World Health Organization, have issued a joint statement that calls on Member States to replace the compulsory detention of people who use opioids in treatment centres with voluntary, evidence-informed and rights-based health and social services. The arguments in favour of this position fall into three broad categories: Compulsory treatment centres infringe on an individual's liberty, they put human beings at risk of harm, and evidence of their effectiveness against opioid dependence has not been generated. The United Nations statement underscores that although countries apply different criteria for sending individuals to compulsory treatment centres, detention often takes place without due process, legal safeguards or judicial review. This clearly violates internationally recognized human rights standards. Furthermore, people who are committed to these centres are often exposed to physical and sexual violence, forced labour and sub-standard living conditions. They are often denied health care, despite their heightened vulnerability to HIV infection and tuberculosis. Finally, there is no evidence, according to the statement, that these centres offer an environment that is conducive to recovery from opioid dependence or to the rehabilitation of commercial sex workers or of children who have suffered sexual exploitation, abuse or lack of care and protection. The author of this paper sets forth several arguments that counter the position taken by the United Nations and argues in favour of compulsory treatment within a broader harm reduction strategy aimed at protecting society as well as the individual concerned.

Douze agences des Nations Unies, parmi elles l'Organisation mondiale de la Santé, ont émis une déclaration commune qui appelle les États membres à remplacer la détention obligatoire des consommateurs d'opioïdes dans des centres de traitement par des services sanitaires et sociaux volontaires qui s'appuient sur des données probantes et soient fondés sur le droit. Les arguments en faveur de cette position se répartissent en trois grandes catégories: les centres de traitement obligatoire empiètent sur la liberté de l'individu, ils exposent les êtres humains à des risques et la preuve de leur efficacité contre la dépendance aux opioïdes n'a pas été démontrée. La déclaration des Nations Unies souligne que même si les pays appliquent des critères différents pour l'envoi des individus dans des centres de traitement obligatoire, leur détention survient souvent sans procédure régulière, protection légale ou contrôle juridictionnel. Cet état de fait contrevient clairement aux normes des droits de l'homme reconnues au niveau international. En outre, les personnes remises à ces centres sont souvent exposées à des sévices physiques et sexuels, à du travail forcé et à des conditions de vie inférieures aux normes. Ils se voient souvent refuser des soins de santé en dépit de leur vulnérabilité accrue à l'infection par le VIH et à la tuberculose. Enfin, il n'y a aucune preuve, selon cette déclaration, que ces centres offrent un climat propice à la récupération de la dépendance aux opioïdes ou à la réinsertion des professionnels du sexe ou des enfants victimes d'exploitation sexuelle, de maltraitance ou de manque de soins et de protection.L'auteur de ce document de travail avance plusieurs arguments contraires à la position adoptée par les Nations Unies et milite en faveur d'un traitement obligatoire participant d'une stratégie élargie de réduction des risques visant à protéger la société, mais aussi l'individu concerné.

Doce agencias de las Naciones Unidas, entre ellas la Organización Mundial de la Salud, han emitido una declaración conjunta que insta a los Estados miembros a reemplazar la retención obligatoria en centros de tratamiento de personas que hacen uso de opiáceos por servicios sociales y sanitarios voluntarios, basados en pruebas científicas y en sus derechos. Los argumentos a favor de esta postura se clasifican en tres amplias categorías: Los centros de tratamiento obligatorio atentan contra la libertad individual, ponen a las personas en riesgo y no existen pruebas de su eficacia contra la dependencia de opiáceos. La declaración de las Naciones Unidas enfatiza que, aunque cada país aplica criterios distintos a la hora de enviar a los individuos a los centros de tratamiento obligatorio, es frecuente que la retención se lleve a cabo sin el debido proceso, la seguridad jurídica ni el examen judicial correspondiente, lo que viola claramente las normas de los derechos humanos reconocidas a nivel internacional. Además, las personas internadas en dichos centros se ven expuestas, con frecuencia, a violencia física o sexual, trabajos forzados y condiciones precarias de vida, y es frecuente que se les niegue la atención sanitaria a pesar de ser más vulnerables a la infección por VIH y a la tuberculosis. Por último, no hay ninguna evidencia, de acuerdo con la declaración, de que dichos centros ofrezcan un ambiente propicio para la recuperación de la dependencia a los opiáceos o para la rehabilitación de trabajadores sexuales o de niños que han sufrido explotación sexual, abusos o falta de cuidado y atención.El autor del presente artículo describe numerosos argumentos que rebaten la posición adoptada por las Naciones Unidas a favor de un tratamiento obligatorio en el ámbito de una estrategia más amplia enfocada a la reducción del daño y cuyo objetivo es proteger tanto a la sociedad como al individuo afectado.