Gold Immunochromatography Assay for the Rapid Detection of Spiramycin in Milk and Beef Samples Based on a Monoclonal Antibody.

Spiramycin (SP) residues in food do harm to human health. It is necessary to establish rapid detection method for SP. In this work, a monoclonal antibody (mAb)-based gold immunochromatography assay (GICA) is developed for the rapid detection of SP. Under optimum conditions, the half-maximal inhibitory concentration of SP-mAb is 0.43 ng mL-1 . The subtype of SP-mAb is IgG2b. This antibody has no cross-reactivity with other analogues and has high affinity (4.52 × 1010 L mol-1 ). Qualitative results can be visualized with the naked eye, with a visual detection limit of 1.0 ng mL-1 and cut-off value of 10 ng mL-1 . A hand-held strip scanner is used for the quantitative analysis, with LOD 0.43 ng mL-1 in assay buffer. The recoveries of SP ranged from 72.3% to 112% in milk and 98.5% to 115% in beef, with variable coefficient ranging from 9.4% to 11.7% in milk and 8.14% to 15.4% in beef. Besides, the proposed GICA method for SP is confirmed by LC-MS/MS in SP-spiked milk and beef samples. Overall, the developed GICA can be a useful tool for SP residues on-site screening in milk and beef samples.

Pretreatment of spiramycin fermentation residue using hyperthermophilic digestion: quick startup and performance.

This study aimed to evaluate the feasibility of hyperthermophilic anaerobic digestion at 70 °C in the pretreatment of spiramycin fermentation residue. By feeding municipal excess sludge under a solid retention time of 5 days, the hyperthermophilic digester was successfully started up within 3 days from mesophilic digestion by a one-step temperature increase from 35 to 70 °C. MiSeq sequencing showed the fast establishment of thermophilic fermenting bacterial communities in 3 days immediately after the temperature increase, with increases in abundance of Coprothermobacter, Spirochaetaceae_uncultured and Fervidobacterium from <0.001%, 1.06% and <0.001% to 33.77%, 11.65% and 3.42%, respectively. The feasibility of hyperthermophilic digestion for spiramycin residue was evaluated in batch experiments for 7 days. Hyperthermophilic digestion considerably reduced antibiotic concentrations, with removal efficiencies of 55.3% and 99.0% for the spiramycin residue alone and its mixture with hyperthermophilic sludge, respectively. At the same time, the abundances of four macrolide-lincosamide-streptogramin resistance genes were also reduced within 7 days, due to the decrease of their corresponding hosts. These results suggest that hyperthermophilic digestion could easily be started up from mesophilic digestion and might be a suitable pretreatment approach for spiramycin residue.

Identification of two regulatory genes involved in carbomycin biosynthesis in Streptomyces thermotolerans.

Carbomycins are 16-membered macrolide antibiotics produced by Streptomyces thermotolerans ATCC 11416T. To characterize gene cluster responsible for carbomycin biosynthesis, the draft genome sequences for strain ATCC 11416T were obtained, from which the partial carbomycin biosynthetic gene cluster was identified. This gene cluster was approximately 40 kb in length, and encoding 30 ORFs. Two putative transcriptional regulatory genes, acyB2 and cbmR, were inactivated by insertion of the apramycin resistance gene, and the resulting mutants were unable to produce carbomycin, thus confirming the involvement of two regulatory genes in carbomycin biosynthesis. Overexpression of acyB2 greatly improved the yield of carbomycin; however, overexpression of cbmR blocked carbomycin production. The qPCR analysis of the carbomycin biosynthetic genes in various mutants indicated that most genes were highly expressed in acyB2-overexpressing strains, but few expressed in cbmR-overexpressing strains. Furthermore, acyB2 co-expression with 4″-isovaleryltransferase gene (ist), resulted in efficient biotransformation of spiramycin into bitespiramycin in S. lividans TK24, whereas ist gene regulated by acyB2 and cbmR would cause the lower efficiency of spiramycin biotransformation. These results indicated that AcyB2 was a pathway-specific positive regulator of carbomycin biosynthesis. However, CbmR played a dual role in the carbomycin biosynthesis by acting as a positive regulator, and as a repressor at cbmR high expression levels.

Influence of Al3+ on the titer of spiramycin and effective components in fermentor.

Spiramycin is a multicomponent antibiotic, and different components have different antibacterial activities. In Streptomyces spiramyceticus 16-10-2, spiramycin II and spiramycin III (SPMII and SPMIII) are the main components, while spiramycin I (SPMI) needs to be controlled below 12%. Based on this, the influences of Al3+ on total spiramycin titer and components were investigated in this work. Those experiments were mainly performed in 15 L fermentor and Al3+ made a great improvement in spiramycin titer. The optimal adding concentration and adding time of Al3+ were 0.32 g/L at 12 hr. Under this condition, spiramycin titer was increased by 19.51% compared with the control. Moreover, the percentage of SPMII and SPMIII was increased by 7.14%. At the same time, the time of mycelia autolysis was lengthened. In addition, the specific activities of acetyl-CoA synthetase, acetate kinase, acetylphosphotransferase, and acylating enzyme were much higher than those of control. The content of acetic acid and succinic acid was beyond 3 and 4.5 times than that of control, respectively.

Complete genome sequence of Streptomyces ambofaciens ATCC 23877, the spiramycin producer.

Streptomyces ambofaciens ATCC23877 is a soil bacterium industrially exploited for the production of the macrolide spiramycin which is used in human medicine as an antibacterial and anti-toxoplasmosis chemical. Its genome consists of a 8.3 Mbp linear chromosome and a 89 kb circular plasmid. The complete genome sequence reported here will enable us to investigate Streptomyces genome evolution and to discover new secondary metabolites with potential applications notably in human medicine.

Antioxidant responses and degradation of two antibiotic contaminants in Microcystis aeruginosa.

Cyanobacteria may interact with antibiotic contaminants in aquatic environments, but the interaction effects and mechanisms remain unclear. In the present study, aqueous culture of Microcystis aeruginosa was exposed to 50ng/l-1µg/l of spiramycin and amoxicillin for seven days. The influences of antibiotics on the antioxidant system of M. aeruginosa and the degradation of antibiotics by M. aeruginosa were investigated. The activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) in spiramycin-treated M. aeruginosa were stimulated by up to 2.2 folds, while the activities of peroxidase (POD) and catalase (CAT) were inhibited by spiramycin at test concentrations of 500ng/l-1µg/l, with a decrease of up to 71% and 76% compared to the control, respectively. The activities of SOD, POD and CAT in M. aeruginosa were stimulated by amoxicillin during the whole exposure period, with respective increases of up to 60%, 30% and 120% relative to the control. At test concentrations of 500ng/l-1µg/l, the higher MDA contents in spiramycin-treated M. aeruginosa indicated a higher toxicity of spiramycin than amoxicillin, possibly due to the accumulation of hydrogen peroxide caused by the inhibited activities of POD and CAT under exposure to spiramycin. The increase of glutathione content, the stimulation of glutathione S-transferase activity and the degradation of each antibiotic were observed in M. aeruginosa during the 7-day exposure. At the end of exposure, 12.5%-32.9% of spiramycin and 30.5%-33.6% of amoxicillin could be degraded by M. aeruginosa from the culture medium, indicating the ability of M. aeruginosa to eliminate coexisting contaminants via detoxification.

Construction of 4"-isovalerylspiramycin-I-producing strain by in-frame partial deletion of 3-O-acyltransferase gene in Streptomyces spiramyceticus WSJ-1, the bitespiramycin producer.

Bitespiramycin (BT), a multi-component antibiotic consisted mainly of 4"-isovalerylspiramycin I, II and III, is produced by Streptomyces spiramyceticus WSJ-1, a recombinant spiramycin-production strain that harbored the 4"-O-acyltransferase gene (ist) from Streptomyces mycarofaciens 1748, which could isovalerylate the 4"-OH of spiramycin. To eliminate the production of components 4"-isovalerylspiramycin II and III, therefore reducing the component complexity of BT, inactivation of the sspA gene, which encodes the 3-O-acyltransferase responsible for the acylation of spiramycin I to spiramycin II and III, was performed in Streptomyces spiramyceticus WSJ-1, by in-frame partial deletion. The resulting strain, Streptomyces spiramyceticus WSJ-2, is a 4"-isovalerylspiramycin-I-producing strain as expected.

Fate of antibacterial spiramycin in river waters.

Spiramycin, a widely used veterinary macrolide antibiotic, was found at traceable levels (nanograms per litre range) in Po River water (N-Italy). The aqueous environmental fate of this antibiotic compound was studied through drug decomposition, the identification of the main and secondary transformation products (TPs), assessment of mineralisation and the investigation of drug TPs toxicity. Initially, laboratory experiments were performed, with the aim of stimulating the antibacterial transformation processes followed in aquatic systems. The TPs were identified through the employment of the liquid chromatography (LC)-mass spectrometry technique. Under illumination, spiramycin degraded rapidly and transformed into numerous organic (intermediate) compounds, of which 11 could be identified, formed through five initial transformation routes. These laboratory simulation experiments were verified in situ to check the mechanism previously supposed. Po River water was sampled and analysed (by LC-high-resolution mass spectrometry) at eight sampling points. Among the previously identified TPs, five of them were also found in the river water. Three of them seem to be formed through a direct photolysis process, while the other two are formed through indirect photolysis processes mediated by natural photo sensitisers. The transformation occurring in the aquatic system involved hydroxylation, demethylation and the detachment of forosamine or mycarose sugars. Toxicity assays using Vibrio fischeri proved that even if spiramycin did not exhibit toxicity, its transformation proceeded through the formation of toxic products.

Leucine improves the component of isovalerylspiramycins for the production of bitespiramycin.

Bitespiramycin, a group of 4''-O-acylated spiramycins with 4''-O-isovalerylspiramycins as the major components, is produced by recombinant spiramycin-producing strain Streptomyces spiramyceticus harboring a 4''-O-acyltransferase gene from a carbomycin-producing strain S. mycarofaciens 1748. The effects of leucine feeding on the bitespiramycin fermentation, especially the synthesis of isovalerylspiramycin components, were investigated. The experiment was initially performed in flask culture under the condition of feeding 15.4 mmol/l of leucine at 72 h fermentation, and the culture without leucine feeding was used as control. When 15.4 mmol/l leucine was fed at 72 h, 51.3 +/- 0.33% total isovalerylspiramycins was recorded compared to 40.9 +/- 0.26% under the control condition after 96 h of fermentation. The improvement of total isovalerylspiramycin content was further achieved in 15 l fermentation when 15.4 mmol/l of leucine was supplemented from 65 to 72 h. These results indicated that isovaleryl group derived from leucine catabolism could act as the precursor of the 4'' side chain of bitespiramycin, which profoundly enhanced the synthesis of isovalerylspiramycins in the bitespiramycin complex.

Conjugal transfer using the bacteriophage phiC31 att/int system and properties of the attB site in Streptomyces ambofaciens.

To facilitate molecular genetic studies of Streptomyces ambofaciens that produces spiramycin, a commercially important macrolide antibiotic used in human medicine against Gram-positive pathogenic bacteria, the conditions for the conjugal transfer of DNA from E. coli to S. ambofaciens were established using a bacteriophage phiC31 att/int system. The transconjugation efficiency of S. ambofaciens varied with the medium used; the highest frequency was obtained on AS-1 medium containing 10 mM MgCl(2) without heat treatment of the spores. In addition, by cloning and sequencing the attB site, we identified that S. ambofaciens contains a single attB site within an ORF coding for a pirin homolog, and its attB site sequence shows 100% nt identity to the sequence of S. coelicolor and S. lividans, which have the highest efficiency in transconjugation using the phiC31 att/int system.

Acid catalysed degradation of some spiramycin derivatives found in the antibiotic bitespiramycin.

Bitespiramycin is a novel antibiotic containing a number of 4''-acylated spiramycin derivatives (isovalerylspiramycins I-III, butanoylspiramycin III, propanoylspiramycin III and acetylspiramycin III) as major components. These spiramycin derivatives are susceptible to degradation in acid solution. Liquid chromatography-ion trap mass spectrometry (LC/MS(n)) was used to study the degradation of these spiramycin derivatives in simulated gastric fluid at 37 degrees C. All derivatives degraded by first-order reactions for which rate constants (k) and half-lives (t(1/2)) were calculated. Acyl groups at position 3 had less effect on acid-stability of spiramycin derivatives than acyl groups at position 4''. The introduction of 4''-acyl groups enhanced the acid-stability of spiramycin derivatives and altered the degradation pathway in simulated gastric fluid such that loss of forosamine rather than loss of mycarose becomes the major degradation pathway.

Treatment of toxoplasmosis in pregnancy: concentrations of spiramycin and neospiramycin in maternal serum and amniotic fluid.

Toxoplasma infection during pregnancy is widely treated with oral spiramycin to reduce the risk of congenital toxoplasmosis in the infant. Failures of therapy have been observed, however. In this study, a sensitive high-performance liquid chromatography technique was used to measure concentrations of spiramycin and neospiramycin, one of the major metabolites of spiramycin, in maternal serum and amniotic fluid. Samples were obtained from 18 women who underwent amniocentesis for polymerase chain reaction (PCR) diagnosis of fetal infection 5-109 days following the prescription of spiramycin therapy (3 g/day). Concentrations of spiramycin and neospiramycin in both serum and amniotic fluid were highly variable, ranging from nondetectable values to 1 microg/ml. None of the concentrations measured were within the range reported to inhibit growth of the parasite in vitro. Consistent with previous reports, part of the observed variability in maternal and fetal drug concentrations could be explained by individual differences in several pharmacokinetic parameters: intestinal absorption, tissue distribution, cellular uptake, metabolism, transfer across the placenta, drug accumulation in fetal tissue, and maternal and fetal drug elimination. The heterogeneity of the data could also be related to differences in patient compliance with the medication prescribed. By addressing factors that could impair adequate treatment of toxoplasmosis during pregnancy, the data presented call for a larger-scale controlled study to determine individual and diurnal variations in maternal drug levels, patient compliance, and outcomes of the offspring. The activity of neospiramycin against Toxoplasma gondii should be assessed.

Construction and physiological studies on a stable bioengineered strain of shengjimycin.

Shengjimycin is a group of 4"-acylated spiramycins with 4"-isovalerylspiramycin as the major component, produced by recombinant S. spiramyceticus F21 harboring a 4"-O-acyltransferase gene from S. mycarofaciens 1748. A stable bioengineered strain of Streptomyces spiramyceticus WSJ-1 was constructed by integrating the 4"-O-acyltransferase gene (ist) by homologous recombination into the chromosome of the spiramycin-producing strain S. spiramyceticus F21. In this construction, a Streptomyces/E. coli shuttle plasmid pKC1139 (AmR) was used as the vector with the tsr gene used as selection marker for homologous recombination. The constructed strain, S. spiramyceticus WSJ-1,was genetically stable in production titer and proportion of components of shengjimycin as well as in maintaining the tsr selective marker when grown without selection. Southern hybridization confirmed the integrated status of the ist gene in the host genome. The production and the proportion of major component of 4"-isovalerylspiramycin of S. spiramyceticus WSJ-1 was also improved comparing with the strain harboring an autonomous plasmid -S. spiramyceticus F21/pIJ680(311) as shown by HPLC analysis. Physiological studies indicated that increase of the VDH ( valine dehydrogenase ) and LDH ( leucine dehydrogenase ) activities of WSJ-1 may be involved in this improvement.

Inhibition of the ribosomal peptidyl transferase reaction by the mycarose moiety of the antibiotics carbomycin, spiramycin and tylosin.

Many antibiotics, including the macrolides, inhibit protein synthesis by binding to ribosomes. Only some of the macrolides affect the peptidyl transferase reaction. The 16-member ring macrolide antibiotics carbomycin, spiramycin, and tylosin inhibit peptidyl transferase. All these have a disaccharide at position 5 in the lactone ring with a mycarose moiety. We have investigated the functional role of this mycarose moiety. The 14-member ring macrolide erythromycin and the 16-member ring macrolides desmycosin and chalcomycin do not inhibit the peptidyl transferase reaction. These drugs have a monosaccharide at position 5 in the lactone ring. The presence of mycarose was correlated with inhibition of peptidyl transferase, footprints on 23 S rRNA and whether the macrolide can compete with binding of hygromycin A to the ribosome. The binding sites of the macrolides to Escherichia coli ribosomes were investigated by chemical probing of domains II and V of 23 S rRNA. The common binding site is around position A2058, while effects on U2506 depend on the presence of the mycarose sugar. Also, protection at position A752 indicates that a mycinose moiety at position 14 in 16-member ring macrolides interact with hairpin 35 in domain II. Competitive footprinting of ribosomal binding of hygromycin A and macrolides showed that tylosin and spiramycin reduce the hygromycin A protections of nucleotides in 23 S rRNA and that carbomycin abolishes its binding. In contrast, the macrolides that do not inhibit the peptidyl transferase reaction bind to the ribosomes concurrently with hygromycin A. Data are presented to argue that a disaccharide at position 5 in the lactone ring of macrolides is essential for inhibition of peptide bond formation and that the mycarose moiety is placed near the conserved U2506 in the central loop region of domain V 23 S rRNA.

Construction of a stable bioengineered strain of biotechmycin.

A stable bioengineered strain of Biotechmycin (Streptomyces spiramyceticus WSJ-1) was constructed by integrating the 4"-isovaleryltransferase gene (ist) through homologous recombination into the chromosome of spiramycin-producing strain S.spiramyceticus F21. In this construction, a Streptomyces/E.coli shuttle plasmid pKC1139 (AmR) was used as the vector and tsr gene was inserted as the marker for selection of homologous recombination. This constructed strain, S.spiramyceticus WSJ-1, was genetically very stable in production titer and in the production of biotechmycin as well as in carrying tsr selective marker when grown without pressure. The fermentation of S.spiramyceticus WSJ-1 was also improved compared with the original strain harboring unintegrated plasmid. Southern hybridization confirmed the integrated status of the ist gene in the host genome.

Characterization of a glycosyl transferase inactivating macrolides, encoded by gimA from Streptomyces ambofaciens.

In Streptomyces ambofaciens, the producer of the macrolide antibiotic spiramycin, an open reading frame (ORF) was found downstream of srmA, a gene conferring resistance to spiramycin. The deduced product of this ORF had high degrees of similarity to Streptomyces lividans glycosyl transferase, which inactivates macrolides, and this ORF was called gimA. The cloned gimA gene was expressed in a susceptible host mutant of S. lividans devoid of any background macrolide-inactivating glycosyl transferase activity. In the presence of UDP-glucose, cell extracts from this strain could inactivate various macrolides by glycosylation. Spiramycin was not inactivated but forocidin, a spiramycin precursor, was modified. In vivo studies showed that gimA could confer low levels of resistance to some macrolides. The spectrum of this resistance differs from the one conferred by a rRNA monomethylase, such as SrmA. In S. ambofaciens, gimA was inactivated by gene replacement, without any deleterious effect on the survival of the strain, even under spiramycin-producing conditions. But the overexpression of gimA led to a marked decrease in spiramycin production. Studies with extracts from wild-type and gimA-null mutant strains revealed the existence of another macrolide-inactivating glycosyl transferase activity with a different substrate specificity. This activity might compensate for the effect of gimA inactivation.

Pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of spiramycin and their clinical significance.

The absolute bioavailability of oral spiramycin is generally within the range of 30 to 40%. After a 1 g oral dose, the maximum serum drug concentration was found to be within the range 0.4 to 1.4 mg/L. The tissue distribution of spiramycin is extensive. The volume of distribution is in excess of 300 L, and concentrations achieved in bone, muscle, respiratory tract and saliva exceed those found in serum. The intracellular penetration of spiramycin is also rapid and extensive, with the concentrations in alveolar macrophages 10 to 20 times greater than simultaneous serum concentrations. Spiramycin is less metabolised than some of the other macrolides. The renal excretion of spiramycin is low, with 4 to 20% of the dose being excreted by this route. High concentrations of spiramycin are achieved in bile, which is an important route of elimination. The serum elimination half-life of spiramycin is between 6.2 and 7.7 hours. Of significance to clinicians may be the finding that spiramycin is highly concentrated in the respiratory tract and other tissues and macrophages. The post-antibiotic effect of spiramycin is significant and this effect is more prolonged than that of erythromycin against Staphylococcus aureus. Spiramycin has also been shown to greatly reduce the capacity of strains of Gram-positive cocci to adhere to human buccal cells.

Study of the metabolism of spiramycin in pig liver.

A major metabolic pathway of spiramycins in pig liver is described. This biochemical reaction involves L-cysteine--a common amino acid present in most animal tissues--which reacts with the aldehyde function of the antibiotic forming a thiazolidine ring. This transformation of spiramycin derivatives drastically increased their polarity. A preliminary HPLC method enabling the quantitation of each metabolite in the range 0.5 microg/g of liver tissue is proposed. Spiramycin S is used as an internal standard while extraction procedures take into account the physico-chemical properties of the thiazolidine moieties. By comparison, previous HPLC methods underestimated the exact amount of antibiotic residues because these metabolites were not extracted from the studied tissues.

[Study on the degradation kinetics of spiramycin in acid and alkaline solutions].

Physical and chemical characteristics of spiramycin (SPM) were reviewed in this paper. The degradation rule and kinetics of SPM in acid and alkaline solutions were studied, and the kinetic parameters were calculated. The experimental results showed that the stable range of SPM in water is at pH 4.0~10.0 Degradation occurred seriously at pH<4.0 and pH> 10.0, especially at pH< 2.8 and pH> 12.8. For this reason, the yield of SPM is greatly affected. The solubility in water was also studied by using reference data. The thermodynamical parameters were calculated. The results showed that the solution of SPM in water is exothermic. The solubility decreases as temperature rises.