ABSTRACT
From an endophytic strain of Gliocladium sp. isolated from the Amazonian plant Strychnos cf. toxifera, we obtained the diketopiperazine alkaloid cyclo-(glycyl-L-tyrosyl)-4,4-dimethylallyl ether (1), the steroids ergosterol (2), ergosterol peroxide (3), cerevisterol (4) and the citric acid (5). The AcOEt extract of the fermented broth by Gliocladium sp. showed potent activity against the cancer cell lines MDA-MB435 (human breast cancer cells), HCT-8 (human colorectal cancer cells) and SF-295 (human glioblastoma cancer cells). Compound 1 exhibited a strong antimicrobial activity against Micrococcus luteus at a concentration of 43.4 µM.
Subject(s)
Alkaloids/chemistry , Alkaloids/pharmacology , Anti-Infective Agents/chemistry , Anti-Infective Agents/pharmacology , Diketopiperazines/chemistry , Gliocladium/chemistry , Strychnos/microbiology , Alkaloids/isolation & purification , Antineoplastic Agents/pharmacology , Cell Line, Tumor/drug effects , Citric Acid/isolation & purification , Diketopiperazines/isolation & purification , Dose-Response Relationship, Drug , Endophytes/chemistry , Ergosterol/analogs & derivatives , Ergosterol/isolation & purification , Gliocladium/isolation & purification , Humans , Microbial Sensitivity Tests , Micrococcus luteus/drug effects , Molecular Structure , Peptides, Cyclic/chemistry , Peptides, Cyclic/isolation & purification , Phytosterols/isolation & purificationABSTRACT
The objective of this study was to examine how the processes of seed dispersal and seed predation were altered in forest fragments of the dry forest of Madagascar, where the usual seed dispersers and vertebrate seed predators were absent, using a lemur-dispersed tree species (Strychnos madagascariensis; Loganiaceae) as an example. We then assessed how the changes in vertebrate community composition alter the regeneration pattern and establishment of this tree species and thus, ultimately, the species composition of the forest fragments. By using size-selective exclosures, data from forest fragments were compared with results from continuous forest where vertebrate dispersers and predators were abundant. Visits to the exclosures by mammalian seed predators were monitored with hair traps. In the continuous forest up to 100% of the seeds were removed within the 7 days of the experiments. A substantial proportion of them was lost to seed predation by native rodents. In contrast, practically no predation took place in the forest fragments and almost all seeds removed were dispersed into the safety of ant nests by Aphaenogaster swammerdami, which improves chances of seedling establishment. In congruence with these findings, the abundance of S. madagascariensis in the forest fragments exceeded that of the continuous forest. Thus, the lack of vertebrate seed dispersers in these forest fragments did not lead to a decline in regeneration of this animal-dispersed tree species as would have been expected, but rather was counterbalanced by the concomitant demise of vertebrate seed predators and an increased activity of ants taking over the role of seed dispersers, and possibly even out-doing the original candidates. This study provides an example of a native vertebrate-dispersed species apparently profiting from fragmentation due to flexible animal-plant interactions in different facets, possibly resulting in an impoverished tree species community.
