Factors affecting uptake of ≥ 3 doses of Sulfadoxine-Pyrimethamine for malaria prevention in pregnancy in selected health facilities, Arusha region, Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Tanzania adopted the revised World Health Organization policy in 2013 recommending a minimum of ≥3 doses of Intermittent Preventive Treatment during pregnancy with Sulfadoxine-Pyrimethamine (IPTp-SP) to protect against malaria. A study in Tanzania in 2014 reported low (9%) uptake. We investigated health workers knowledge about IPTp-SP and factors that influenced uptake of > 3 doses of IPTp-SP among pregnant women. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional study in 2017 among post-delivery women and health care workers from nine randomly-selected public health facilities in three Districts of Arusha Region. Probability proportional to size methodology was used to determine number of participants per facility. We used a structured questionnaire to collect socio-demographic and obstetric data, information on doses of SP received, and knowledge of SP for IPTp. Health care workers were interviewed about their knowledge for IPTp- SP and challenges encountered in its uptake and use. RESULTS: We interviewed 556 persons (median age 26 years, range 16-42 years) with the response rate of 99.3%. Of these, 484 (87.1%) had > 3 Antenatal Care (ANC) visits. A total of 402 (72.3%) were multigravida with 362 (65.1%) having given birth at least once. Of the 556 participants, 219 (39.4%) made their first ANC booking at < 17 weeks of pregnancy and 269 (48.4%) had received > 3 doses of SP-IPTp. Factors associated with uptake of > 3 doses of IPTp-SP included having secondary or higher education [Adjusted Odds Ratio (AOR) =1.6, 95%CI 1.1-2.4], attending ≥4 ANC visits [AOR = 3.1, 95%CI 2.1-4.6], having first antenatal booking at < 17 weeks [AOR = 1.8, 95%CI 1.4-2.3], and adequate knowledge on IPTp-SP [AOR = 2.7, 95%CI 1.9-3.9]. Among 36 health care workers interviewed, 29(80.6%) had adequate knowledge about IPTp-SP. SP was available in seven (87.5%) of the visited health facilities and was administered under Direct Observed Therapy (DOT) in six (75%) facilities. Health care workers reported that stock outs of SP was a challenge. CONCLUSIONS: Fewer than half of the women interviewed reported uptake of > 3 doses of IPTp-SP. That is below the Tanzania national target of 80%. Making > 4 ANC visits, having secondary or higher education, making an early first ANC visit and having adequate knowledge on IPTp-SP promoted uptake of > 3 doses. Further qualitative studies are needed to explore factors that might contribute to low uptake of SP.

Assessment of coverage of preventive treatment and insecticide-treated mosquito nets in pregnant women attending antenatal care services in 11 districts in Mozambique in 2011: the critical role of supply chain.

BACKGROUND: Malaria during pregnancy is associated with poor maternal and pregnancy outcome and the World Health Organization recommends the administration of intermittent preventive treatment in pregnancy (IPTp) with sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (SP) and distribution of insecticide-treated mosquito nets (ITNs) to all pregnant women attending antenatal care (ANC) services. This study was conducted with the aim to assess the uptake of IPTp and ITNs in pregnant women attending ANC services and correlate with ANC attendance and frequency of stock-outs in 22 health facilities Mozambique. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted between July and December 2011 in 22 health units in 11 districts situated in 11 provinces in Mozambique. Two health facilities were selected per district (one urban and one rural). Data were collected by reviewing logbooks of antenatal consultations as well as from monthly district reports. RESULTS: During the period under investigation, a total of 23,524 pregnant women attended their 1st antenatal care visits, of which 12,775 (54.3%) and 7581 (32.2%) received one and two doses of IPTp, respectively. In regard to ITNs, a total of 16,436 (69.9%) pregnant women received ITNs. Uptake of IPTp and ITNs by pregnant women at ANC services was higher in southern Mozambique and lower in districts situated in the northern part of the country. Stock-outs of SP and ITNs were reported in 50.0% (11/22) and 54.5% (12/22) of the health facilities, respectively. Coverage of IPTp and ITN in health facilities with stock-outs of SP and ITNs was much lower as compared to health facilities with no stock-outs. CONCLUSIONS: Altogether, data from this study shows that coverage of the 2nd dose of IPTp, as well as ITNs, was low in pregnant women attending ANC services in Mozambique. In addition, this data also shows that stock-outs of SP and ITNs were frequent and led to lower coverage of IPTp and ITN, representing a serious barrier for the accomplishment of targets. In conclusion, this study recommends that efforts should be made to improve the supply chains of SP and ITNs.

Assessing supply-side barriers to uptake of intermittent preventive treatment for malaria in pregnancy: a qualitative study and document and record review in two regions of Uganda.

BACKGROUND: Intermittent preventive treatment in pregnancy (IPTp) with sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (SP), provided as part of routine antenatal care (ANC), is one of three malaria-in-pregnancy prevention and control mechanisms recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO). However, despite high ANC attendance and increased efforts to address known obstacles, IPTp uptake figures have remained low. This study aimed to identify and assess barriers that continue to impede IPTp uptake in Uganda, in particular for women who attend ANC. The paper focuses on supply-side barriers, i.e., challenges relating to the health service provider. METHODS: In-depth interviews were conducted in two regions of Uganda in November 2013 and April/May 2014 with four different target audiences: seven district health officials, 15 health workers, 19 women who had attended ANC, and five opinion leaders. In addition, a document and record review was carried out at four health facilities. RESULTS: Guidelines with regard to IPTp provision in Uganda have been shown to be inconsistent and, at the time of the research, did not reflect the most recent WHO policy recommendation. There is a lack of training and supervision opportunities for health workers, resulting in poor knowledge of IPTp guidelines and uncertainty about the safety and efficacy of SP. ANC is not consistently offered in health facilities, leading to some women being denied services. While strengthening of the supply chain appears to have reduced the occurrence of stock-outs of SP in public facilities, stock-outs reportedly continue to occur in the private sector. There are also sources of data inaccuracy along the data recording and reporting chain, limiting policy makers' ability to react adequately to trends and challenges. CONCLUSIONS: Given the high ANC attendance rates in Uganda, supply-side barriers are likely to account for many missed opportunities for the provision of IPTp in Uganda. Improvements will require consistent provision of ANC, implementation of current WHO IPTp policy recommendations, supply of SP to the private sector, availability of clear guidelines, as well as improved training and supervision for health workers. Improving facility and district-level recording and reporting will further strengthen the country's ability to address uptake of IPTp.

A new strategy and its effect on adherence to intermittent preventive treatment of malaria in pregnancy in Uganda.

BACKGROUND: Few women in Uganda access intermittent preventive treatment of malaria in pregnancy (IPTp) with sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (SP). Previous studies have shown that high costs, frequent stock-out of drugs, supplies and poor quality of care are the greatest hindrance for women to access health services. In order to increase adherence to IPTp, we conceptualised an intervention that offset delivery care costs through providing a mama kit, created awareness on health benefits of IPTp and built trust between the provider and the client. METHODS: The new strategy was conceived along four constructs namely: 1) creating awareness by training midwives to explain the benefits of SP and the importance of adhering to the two doses of SP as IPTp to all pregnant women who attended ANC and consented to the study. Midwives were trained for two days in customer care and to provide a friendly environment. The pregnant women were also informed of the benefits of attending ANC and delivering at health facilities. 2) Each woman was promised a mama kit during ANC; 3) trust was built by showing the mama kit to each woman and branding it with her name; 4) keeping the promise by providing the mama kit when women came to deliver. The strategy to increase adherence to two doses of SP and encourage women to deliver at health facilities was implemented at two health facilities in Mukono district (Kawolo hospital and Mukono health centre IV). The inclusion criteria were women who: i) consented to the study and ii) were in the second trimester of pregnancy. All pregnant women in the second trimester (4-6 months gestation) who attended ANC and consented to participate in the study were informed of the benefits of SP, the importance of delivering at health facilities, were advised to attend the scheduled visits, promised a mama kit and ensured the kit was available at delivery. The primary outcome was the proportion of pregnant women adhering to a two dose SP regimen. RESULTS: A total of 2,276 women received the first dose of SP and 1,656 (72.8%) came back for the second dose. 1,069 women were involved in the evaluation (384 had participated in the intervention while 685 had not). The main reasons that enabled those who participated in the intervention to adhere to the two doses of IPTp and deliver at the study facilities were: an explanation provided on the benefits of IPTp and delivering at health facilities (25.1%), availability of a mama kit at delivery (24.6%), kind midwives (19.8%) and fearing complications of pregnancy (8.5%). Overall, 78.0% of these women reported that they were influenced to adhere to IPTp by the intervention. In a multivariable regression, nearby facility, P = 0. 007, promising a mama kit, P = 0.002, kind midwives, P = 0.0001 and husbands' encouragement, P = 0.0001 were the significant factors influencing adherence to IPTp with SP. CONCLUSION: The new strategy was a good incentive for women to attend scheduled ANC visits, adhere to IPTp and deliver at the study facilities. Policy implications include the urgent need for developing a motivation package based on the Health-Trust Model to increase access and adherence to IPTp.

Insights following change in drug policy: a descriptive study for antimalarial prescription practices in children of public sector health facilities in Jharkhand state of India.

BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVES: Widespread resistance to chloroquine was the mainstay to implement artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) in the year 2007 in few malaria endemic states in India including Jharkhand as the first line of treatment for uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria. This study was conducted in Jharkhand state of the country just after the implementation of ACT to assess the prevailing antimalarial drug prescribing practices, availability of antimalarial drugs and the acceptability of the new policy by the health professionals for the treatment of uncomplicated P. falciparum malaria patients particularly in children ≤ 15 yr of age. METHODS: This is a cross-sectional study in children aged ≤ 15 yr with malaria or to whom antimalarial drug was prescribed. Main outcome measure was prescription of recommended ACT in children aged ≤ 15 yr with malaria in the selected areas of Jharkhand. RESULTS: In the year 2008, artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) was implemented in 12 districts of the studied state; however, the availability of ACT was confirmed only in five districts. Antimalarial prescription was prevalent amongst the undiagnosed (8.4%), malaria negative (64.3%) and unknown blood test result (1.2%) suggesting the prevalence of irrational treatment practices. ACT prescription was very low with only 3.2% of confirmed falciparum malaria patients receiving it while others received either non-artesunate (NA) treatment (88.1%) including chloroquine (CQ) alone, CQ + Primaquine (PQ)/other drugs, sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine (SP) alone, SP + other drugs or artemisinin monotherapy (AM) treatment (6.3%). Still others were given non-antimalarial treatment (NM) in both malaria positive (0.3%) and malaria negative (2.1%) cases. INTERPRETATION & CONCLUSION: Despite the change in drug policy in the studied state the availability and implementation of ACT was a major concern. Nevertheless, the non-availability of blister packs for children aged ≤ 15 yr was the main hindrance in the implementation of the recommended antimalarial. Availability, training and participation of health professionals in decision-making are the key elements to improve adherence to new treatment guidelines. This study provided evidence for the requirement of age-specific blister packs in the country and the national programme has introduced age-specific blister packs in the country in 2010. This baseline information will be useful to monitor the progress in ACT implementation in the country.

Prescription practices and availability of artemisinin monotherapy in India: where do we stand?

BACKGROUND: The World Health Organization has urged all member states to deploy artemisinin-based combination therapy and progressively withdraw oral artemisinin monotherapies from the market due to their high recrudescence rates and to reduce the risk of drug resistance. Prescription practices by physicians and the availability of oral artemisinin monotherapies with pharmacists directly affect the pattern of their use. Thus, treatment practices for malaria, with special reference to artemisinin monotherapy prescription, in selected states of India were evaluated. METHODS: Structured, tested questionnaires were used to conduct convenience surveys of physicians and pharmacists in eleven purposively selected districts across six states in 2008. In addition, exit interviews of patients with a diagnosis of uncomplicated malaria or a prescription for an anti-malarial drug were also performed. Logistic regression was used to determine patient clinical care, and institutional factors associated with artemisinin monotherapy prescription. RESULTS: Five hundred and eleven physicians from 196 health facilities, 530 pharmacists, and 1,832 patients were interviewed. Artemisinin monotherapy was available in 72.6% of pharmacies and was prescribed by physicians for uncomplicated malaria in all study states. Exit interviews among patients confirmed the high rate of use of artemisinin monotherapy with 14.8% receiving such a prescription. Case management, i.e. method of diagnosis and overall treatment, varied by state and public or private sector. Treatment in the private sector (OR 8.0, 95%CI: 3.8, 17) was the strongest predictor of artemisinin monotherapy prescription when accounting for other factors. Use of the combination therapy recommended by the national drug policy, artesunate + sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine, was minimal (4.9%), with the exception of one state. CONCLUSIONS: Artemisinin monotherapy use was widespread across India in 2008. The accessible sale of oral artemisinin monotherapy in retail market and an inadequate supply of recommended drugs in the public sector health facilities promoted its prescription. This study resulted in notifications to all state drug controllers in India to withdraw the oral artemisinin formulations from the market. In 2010, artesunate + sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine became the universal first-line treatment for confirmed Plasmodium falciparum malaria and was deployed at full scale.

Piloting the global subsidy: the impact of subsidized artemisinin-based combination therapies distributed through private drug shops in rural Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: WHO estimates that only 3% of fever patients use recommended artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs), partly reflecting their high prices in the retail sector from where many patients seek treatment. To overcome this challenge, a global ACT subsidy has been proposed. We tested this proposal through a pilot program in rural Tanzania. METHODS/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Three districts were assigned to serve either as a control or to receive the subsidy plus a package of supporting interventions. From October 2007, ACTs were sold at a 90% subsidy through the normal private supply chain to intervention district drug shops. Data were collected at baseline and during intervention using interviews with drug shop customers, retail audits, mystery shoppers, and audits of public and NGO facilities. The proportion of consumers in the intervention districts purchasing ACTs rose from 1% at baseline to 44.2% one year later (p<0.001), and was significantly higher among consumers purchasing for children under 5 than for adults (p = 0.005). No change in ACT usage was observed in the control district. Consumers paid a mean price of $0.58 for ACTs, which did not differ significantly from the price paid for sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine, the most common alternative. Drug shops in population centers were significantly more likely to stock ACTs than those in more remote areas (p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: A subsidy introduced at the top of the private sector supply chain can significantly increase usage of ACTs and reduce their retail price to the level of common monotherapies. Additional interventions may be needed to ensure access to ACTs in remote areas and for poorer individuals who appear to seek treatment at drug shops less frequently. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Controlled-Trials.com ISRCTN39125414.

Impact of delayed introduction of sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine and arthemeter-lumefantrine on malaria epidemiology in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate how delayed introduction of sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (Fansidar) and arthemeter-lumefantrine (Coartem) as first-line drugs for malaria in KwaZulu-Natal contributed to the reported epidemics of 1985-1988 and 1997-2001. METHODS: Ecological study assessing the association between malaria incidence and the emergence and degree of resistance to chloroquine from 1982 to 1988 and to sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine from 1991 to 2001, when each was the first-line malaria treatment. RESULTS: The relative risk for malaria infection after the level of drug resistance reached 10% was 4.5 (95% CI: 4.0-5.2) in the chloroquine period and 5.9 (95% CI: 5.7-6.1) in the sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine period. In the chloroquine period, the relative risk of death from malaria was tenfold (95% CI: 1.3-78.1) and the case fatality doubled after drug resistance had reached 10%. The risk of death during the sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine period was 10.8 (95% CI: 5.9-19.2) and case fatality 1.8 times higher after drug resistance had reached 10%, than before. CONCLUSION: Malaria epidemics in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa have been exacerbated by failing drug regimens. The establishment of sentinel sites for monitoring drug failure and the prompt adoption of guidelines based on World Health Organization standards in drug resistance should improve malaria control.

Community-based distribution of sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine for intermittent preventive treatment of malaria during pregnancy improved coverage but reduced antenatal attendance in southern Malawi.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the impact of a 2-year programme for community-based delivery of sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (SP) on intermittent preventive treatment during pregnancy coverage, antenatal clinic attendance and pregnancy outcome. METHODS: Fourteen intervention and 12 control villages in the catchment areas of Chikwawa and Ngabu Government Hospitals, southern Malawi, were selected. Village-based community health workers were trained in information, education and counselling on malaria control in pregnancy and the importance of attending antenatal clinics and promoted these messages to pregnant women. In the intervention group community health workers also distributed SP to pregnant women. RESULTS: In the control area, coverage of intermittent preventive treatment during pregnancy (>2 doses) was low before (44.1%) and during the intervention (46.1%). In the intervention area, coverage increased from 41.5% to 82.9% (P < 0.01). Antenatal clinic attendance (>2 visits) was maintained in control villages at above 90%, but fell in intervention villages from 87.3% to 51.5% (P < 0.01). Post-natal malaria parasitaemia prevalence fell in women from both study areas during the intervention phase (P < 0.05). Increasing the coverage of intermittent preventive treatment during pregnancy to >40% did not significantly improve maternal haemoglobin or reduce low birthweight prevalence. CONCLUSIONS: Better coverage of community-based intermittent preventive treatment during pregnancy can lower attendance at antenatal clinics; thus its effect on pregnancy outcome and antenatal attendance need to be monitored.

Contribuição para o estudo de resistência aos antimaláricos e análise de marcadores moleculares de Plasmodium falciparum e do hospedeiro humano, em Maputo, Moçambique / Contribution to the study of antimalarial resistance and analysis of molecular markers of Plasmodium falciparum and the human host, in Maputo, Mozambique

A malária é de longe a doença parasitária mais importante em Moçambique, constituindo um grave problema de saúde pública no País. Apesar de se considerar que um diagnóstico atempado e um tratamento correcto são os elementos básicos para um programa de controlo da malária bem sucedido, nas últimas décadas, o controlo e tratamento têm sido bastante dificultados pelo aparecimento e disseminação da resistência parasitária aos antimaláricos mais utilizados. Os mecanismos que conferem ao parasita a capacidade de resistir à maioria dos antimaláricos disponíveis não se encontram completamente elucidados. Deste modo, este trabalho teve como objectivo principal avaliar o envolvimento dos genes pfdhfr, pfdhps, pfcrt, pfmdr1 e pfATPase6 na resistência aos antimaláricos em Moçambique, recorrendo a populações naturais de parasitas em isolados colhidos de doentes com malária em Maputo, Moçambique. Neste contexto, foi efectuada a caracterização clínica dos pacientes com diferentes formas clínicas de malária e os perfis genotípicos relacionados com a resistência em P. falciparum para quatro antimaláricos: cloroquina, sulfadoxina/pirimetamina, amodiaquina e artemisinina, através da técnica de PCR-RFLP, para os polimorfismos pfcrt K76T e N75E, pfdhfr N51I, C59R, S108N e I164L, pfdhps A437G e K540E, pfmdr1 N86Y e N1246Y e pfATPase6, G1916A, G110A, A2694T e G2306A. Os dados genotípicos foram subsequentemente analisados estatísticamente, no intuito de detectar associações significativas entre a presença de um determinado marcador antes e depois do tratamento com os diferentes antimaláricos utilizados. Foram também avaliados os polimorfismos em dois marcadores moleculares (ICAM-1 e CD36) do hospedeiro relacionados com susceptibilidade/resistência à malária, em isolados de pacientes com e sem malária. Os polimorfismos da variante CYP-450 (CYP2C8), relacionada com o metabolismo dos fármacos antimaláricos em pacientes com malária, foram também aqui analisados. Os resultados demonstraram a gravidade do problema de resistência a antimaláricos, evidenciado pelas elevadas prevalências dos alelos mutantes antes e depois dos tratamentos efectuados. Foi aqui observada uma elevação significativa de amostras contendo o alelo mutado pfdhps 437G após do tratamento com Fansidar® e com Fansidar®+Amodiaquina. Verificou-se existir uma correlação positiva entre o quíntuplo mutante e o número de isolados, depois do tratamento com Fansidar®. Estes resultados indicam reservas na utilização do Fansidar ® como uma componente da primeira linha de tratamento antimalárico no País e apontam o polimorfismo pfdhps 437G como um possível marcador para a monitorização da resistência a este fármaco. Apesar de não significativos, os resultados da análise do ICAM-1 mostraram a existência de uma possível associação entre a presença da mutação ICAM-1kilifi e a infecção malárica nas suas formas grave e não grave, enquanto para o CD36 foi notória a ausência da mutação T1264G no grupo controle (sem malária). Os resultados da análise dos polimorfismos no gene CYP2C8 demonstraram alguma inconclusividade, tendo no entanto permitido a obtenção de conhecimentos para estudos que possam ser realizados no futuro.

Decreased availability of antimalarials in the private sector following the policy change from chloroquine to sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine in the Kilombero Valley, Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Malaria control strategies emphasize the need for prompt and effective treatment of malaria episodes. To increase treatment efficacy, Tanzania changed its first-line treatment from chloroquine to sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine (SP) in 2001. The effect of this policy change on the availability of antimalarials was studied in rural south-eastern Tanzania. METHODS: In 2001 and 2004, the study area was searched for commercial outlets selling drugs and their stocks were recorded. Household information was obtained from the local Demographic Surveillance System. RESULTS: From 2001 to 2004, the number of general shops stocking drugs increased by 15% and the number of drug stores nearly doubled. However, the proportion of general shops stocking antimalarials dropped markedly, resulting in an almost 50% decrease of antimalarial selling outlets. This led to more households being located farther from a treatment source. In 2004, five out of 25 studied villages with a total population of 13,506 (18%) had neither a health facility, nor a shop as source of malaria treatment. CONCLUSION: While the change to SP resulted in a higher treatment efficacy, it also led to a decreased antimalarial availability in the study area. Although there was no apparent impact on overall antimalarial use, the decline in access may have disproportionately affected the poorest and most remote groups. In view of the imminent policy change to artemisinin-based combination therapy these issues need to be addressed urgently if the benefits of this new class of antimalarials are to be extended to the whole population.

The quality of antimalarials available in Yemen.

BACKGROUND: Malaria has always been a major public health problem in Yemen. Several studies in developing countries have demonstrated ineffective and poor quality drugs including antimalarials. Therefore, quality assessment of antimalarial drugs is of crucial importance. This study aimed to assess the quality of antimalarials (chloroquine and sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine) available in Yemen and to determine whether the quality of these products was related to the level of the distribution chain at which the samples were collected or related to the manufacturers. METHODS: Four samples from each antimalarial product were collected from each of the various levels of the distribution chain. One sample was kept with the research team. Two were tested at Sana'a and Aden Drug Quality Control Laboratories. The fourth was sent to the Centre for Quality Assurance of Medicines in Potchefstroom, South Africa, for analysis. Quality indicators measured were the content of the active ingredient and dissolution rate (for tablets only) in comparison to standard specifications for these products in the relevant pharmacopoeia. RESULTS: The results identified several problems of sub-standard products within the drug distribution chain. They included high and low failures in ingredient content for chloroquine tablets and chloroquine syrup. There was some dissolution failure for chloroquine tablets, and high sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine tablets dissolution failures. Failures with the dissolution of the pyrimethamine were found at most of the collection points. No clear relationship neither between the quality products and the level of the distribution chain, nor between locally manufactured and imported products was observed. CONCLUSION: There are sub-standard antimalarial products circulating within the drug distribution chains in the country, which will have serious implications on the reduced therapeutic effectiveness and on the development of drug resistance. This appears to be due to non-compliance with Good Manufacturing Practice guidelines by manufacturers in the production of the antimalarials.

Consumer response and satisfaction to prepackaged antimalarial drugs for children in Aba, Nigeria.

In July 2003, a consortium of three USAID partners launched a project to promote the correct use of color-coded, age-specific, prepackaged drugs (PPDs) to treat malaria promptly in preschool-aged children in Aba, Abia State, Nigeria. A 3-pronged promotional approach included training of patent medicine vendors (PMVs), home visits by community health promoters, and mass media. Five hundred seventy respondents were interviewed in February-March 2004. People heard about the PPDs from medicine sellers (33.4%), health workers (24.3%), the electronic mass media (18.4%), and friends or relatives (13.5%). Most children (81.1%) took Robaquine (chloroquine-CQ), while 108 (18.9%) took Fansidar (sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine-SP). The median amount paid for Robaquine was 50 naira (dollars 0.36) and for Fansidar, 80 naira (dollars 0.57). Respondents rated the effectiveness of the PPD treatment as very effective (86.8%). Most respondents had something positive to say about the drug (94.9%) and the packaging (93.8%). Only 19.5%) had a complaint about either the drug or the packaging. Overall, 454 (83.9%) received the correct age-appropriate packet. Continuing education is needed for the PMVs to ensure that they obtain accurate age information about the child and sell the age-specific packet. Underdosing is just as serious a concern as overdosing in Nigeria where parasite resistance is rapidly developing for both drugs.

Vendor-to-vendor education to improve malaria treatment by private drug outlets in Bungoma District, Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Private outlets are the main suppliers of uncomplicated malaria treatment in Africa. However, they are so numerous that they are difficult for governments to influence and regulate. This study's objective was to evaluate a low-cost outreach education (vendor-to-vendor) programme to improve the private sector's compliance with malaria guidelines in Bungoma district, Kenya. The cornerstone of the programme was the district's training of 73 wholesalers who were equipped with customized job aids for distribution to small retailers. METHODS: Six months after training the wholesalers, the programme was evaluated using mystery shoppers. The shoppers posed as caretakers of sick children needing medication at 252 drug outlets. Afterwards, supervisors assessed the outlets' knowledge, drug stocks, and prices. RESULTS: The intervention seems to have had a significant impact on stocking patterns, malaria knowledge and prescribing practices of shops/kiosks, but not consistently on other types of outlets. About 32% of shops receiving job aids prescribed to mystery shoppers the approved first-line drug, sulfadoxine-pyremethamine, as compared to only 3% of the control shops. In the first six months, it is estimated that 500 outlets were reached, at a cost of about $8000. CONCLUSIONS: Changing private sector knowledge and practices is widely acknowledged to be slow and difficult. The vendor-to-vendor programme seems a feasible district-level strategy for achieving significant improvements in knowledge and practices of shops/kiosks. However, alternate strategies will be needed to influence pharmacies and clinics. Overall, the impact will be only moderate unless national policies and programmes are also introduced.

A study of the comparative bioavailability of pyrimethamine-sulfadoxine obtained from two oral preparations.

The bioavailability of two oral preparations of pyrimethamine-sulfadoxine are compared in a randomised cross-over study. Pyrimethamine(PM)-sulfadoxine(SD) was given orally in a single dose to healthy male adults (SD 12 mgkg-1; PM 0.64 mgkg-1). For Fansidar(Hoffman-LaRoche) the mean AUC for PM and SD were; 0.47 mghl-1 and 45.4 mghl-1, and for Falcidin(Cosmos), the mean AUC for PM and SD were; 0.49 mg hl-1 and 42.9 mghl-1 respectively. There was no significant difference in bioavailability of PM or SD between the two preparations.