The Ethics of Life as It Could Be: Do We Have Moral Obligations to Artificial Life?

The field of Artificial Life studies the nature of the living state by modeling and synthesizing living systems. Such systems, under certain conditions, may come to deserve moral consideration similar to that given to nonhuman vertebrates or even human beings. The fact that these systems are nonhuman and evolve in a potentially radically different substrate should not be seen as an insurmountable obstacle to their potentially having rights, if they are sufficiently sophisticated in other respects. Nor should the fact that they owe their existence to us be seen as reducing their status as targets of moral concern. On the contrary, creators of Artificial Life may have special obligations to their creations, resembling those of an owner to their pet or a parent to their child. For a field that aims to create artificial life-forms with increasing levels of sophistication, it is crucial to consider the possible ethical implications of our activities, with an eye toward assessing potential moral obligations for which we should be prepared. If Artificial Life is larger than life, then the ethics of artificial beings should be larger than human ethics.

Beyond the Organism versus Machine Dichotomy: A Review of Ethical Concerns in Synthetic Biology.

Synthetic Biology (SynBio) is a technology that brings new possibilities and benefits, as well as new ethical concerns. We have performed a systematic review and thematic analysis of papers that deal with the possible ethical and social issues surrounding SynBio. We found that articles mention deontological concerns related to tinkering with life and more consequentialist matters related to biosafety and biosecurity. At the same time, justice aspects, such as socioeconomic and environmental impacts, are far less mentioned. Moreover, there is a lack of systematic study of the ethical issues that SynBio researchers in the lab encounter on a day-to-day basis.

Playing God and tampering with nature: popular labels for real concerns in synthetic biology.

Public engagement in science with diverse cross-sections of the community is considered a critical aspect of responsible biotechnological innovation. While the research community shows willingness to engage with both ambivalent and supportive audiences about potentially disruptive technological advances, there is less enthusiasm for engaging with groups who hold deeply opposing views to such advances. 'Playing God' and 'tampering with nature' are popular examples of intrinsic objections often made in opposition to the development or use of novel genetic technologies. Historically appearing in arguments against the pursuit of genetically modified organisms in agriculture and food industries, intrinsic objections have previously been labelled by the science community as inconsistent, non-scientific, and vague. Now found in a range of innovation contexts, the domain of synthetic biology appears to attract such objections consistently. We present the findings from a large Australian study (N = 4593) which suggests 'playing God' objections and their variants can be multilayered and, at times, accompanied by meaningful information about risk perceptions. We use qualitative analysis of open-ended responses from an online survey to show how these objections are articulated in response to selected synthetic biology applications across environmental and health domains. Our research invites a rethink of how the synthetic biology community perceives, and engages with, people who express intrinsic objections. These people may additionally hold extrinsic concerns that may be potentially addressed, or at least reasonably considered, through dialogue. We offer some concluding remarks for engaging with publics who employ these types of arguments to communicate unease with aspects of technology development and use.

Gene editing in translational research / La edición de genes en la investigación traslacional / L'edició de gens en la recerca traslacional

DNA read and write technologies have accelerated biotechnology at an unprecedented pace. This enhanced capacity to engineer living beings has accelerated not only scientific research, but also the translation into novel therapies. New approved medicinal products include the correction of the diseased genome and synthetic enhancement to fight diseases. These practices are widely supported socially and scientifically. Applications beyond therapy have also be attempted. In 2018, researcher He Jiankui reported on the edition of human germline during the Second International Summit on Human Genome Editing. On the other hand, during the last years, there have also been attempts at somatic genetic enhancement without the provision of detailed outcomes. Reading and writing DNA empowers us to change our world, even ourselves. The social benefits may be enormous. We need to accelerate the debate, including the stakeholders, to foster a responsible use of these technologies and maximize the positive impact on society

Las tecnologías de lectura y escritura de ADN han acelerado la biotecnología a un ritmo sin precedentes. Esta capacidad mejora para diseñar seres vivos no solo ha acelerado la investigación científica, sino también la translación a terapias novedosas. Nuevos medicamentos aprobados incluyen la corrección del genoma enfermo y la mejora sintética para combatir las enfermedades. Estas prácticas son ampliamente apoyadas social y científicamente. También se han intentado aplicaciones más allá de la terapia. En 2018, el investigador He Jiankui informó sobre la edición de la línea germinal humana durante la Segunda Cumbre Internacional sobre la Edición del Genoma Humano. Por otro lado, en los últimos años también se han producido intentos de mejora genética somática. Leer y escribir ADN nos permite cambiar nuestro planeta, incluso cambiarnos a nosotros mismos. Los beneficios sociales

Les tecnologies de lectura i escriptura d'ADN han accelerat la biotecnologia a un ritme sense precedents. Aquesta capacitat millorada per dissenyar éssers vius no només ha accelerat la recerca científica, sinó també la translació a teràpies noves. Nous medicaments aprovats inclouen la correcció del genoma malalt i la millora sintètica per a combatre les malalties. Aquestes pràctiques són àmpliament recolzades social i científicament. També s'han intentat aplicacions més enllà de la teràpia. El 2018, l'investigador He Jiankui va informar sobre l'edició de la línia germinal humana durant la Segona Cimera Internacional sobre l'Edició del Genoma Humà. D'altra banda, en els últims anys també s'han produït intents de millora genètica somàtica. Llegir i escriure ADN ens permet canviar el nostre planeta, fins i tot canviar-nos a nosaltres mateixos. Els beneficis socials poden ser enormes. Necessitem accelerar el debat, incloent-hi les parts interessades a fi de fomentar un ús responsable d'aquestes tecnologies i maximitzar-ne l'impacte positiu en la societat

[Synthetic chromosomes: rewriting the code of life]. / Chromosomes synthétiques - Réécrire le code de la vie.

The past decade has seen vast improvements in DNA synthesis and assembly methods. The creation of synthetic DNA molecules is becoming easier and more affordable, such that entire chromosomes can now be synthesized. These advances mark the beginning of synthetic genomics, a new discipline interested in the construction of complete genomes tailored for the study and application of biological systems. From viral genome synthesis to the reconstruction of the yeast 16 chromosomes, we discuss the main discoveries, the regulations and ethical considerations along with the potential of this emerging discipline for the future.

TITLE: Chromosomes synthétiques - Réécrire le code de la vie. ABSTRACT: Depuis les dix dernières années, les techniques de synthèse et d'assemblage d'ADN se sont grandement améliorées. La construction de molécules d'ADN synthétiques devient maintenant beaucoup plus simple et abordable de sorte qu'il est possible de reconstruire des chromosomes synthétiques complets. Nous assistons donc aux débuts de la génomique synthétique, qui vise la construction de génomes conçus sur mesure pour l'étude et l'utilisation de systèmes biologiques. De la synthèse des premiers génomes viraux jusqu'à la reconstruction des seize chromosomes de la levure, en passant par la première cellule bactérienne contrôlée par un génome entièrement synthétique, nous discutons des découvertes majeures, des aspects réglementaires et éthiques ainsi que du potentiel de cette nouvelle discipline pour le futur.

Synthetic Biology and the Translational Imperative.

Advances at the interface between the biological sciences and engineering are giving rise to emerging research fields such as synthetic biology. Harnessing the potential of synthetic biology requires timely and adequate translation into clinical practice. However, the translational research enterprise is currently facing fundamental obstacles that slow down the transition of scientific discoveries from the laboratory to the patient bedside. These obstacles including scarce financial resources and deficiency of organizational and logistic settings are widely discussed as primary impediments to translational research. In addition, a number of socio-ethical considerations inherent in translational research need to be addressed. As the translational capacity of synthetic biology is tightly linked to its social acceptance and ethical approval, ethical limitations may-together with financial and organizational problems-be co-determinants of suboptimal translation. Therefore, an early assessment of such limitations will contribute to proactively favor successful translation and prevent the promising potential of synthetic biology from remaining under-expressed. Through the discussion of two case-specific inventions in synthetic biology and their associated ethical implications, we illustrate the socio-ethical challenges ahead in the process of implementing synthetic biology into clinical practice. Since reducing the translational lag is essential for delivering the benefits of basic biomedical research to society at large and promoting global health, we advocate a moral obligation to accelerating translational research: the "translational imperative."

The Conception of Synthetic Entities from a Personalist Perspective.

Synthetic biology opens up the possibility of producing new entities not found in nature, whose classification as organisms or machines has been debated. In this paper we are focusing on the delimitation of the moral value of synthetic products, in order to establish the ethically right way to behave towards them. In order to do so, we use personalism as our ethical framework. First, we examine how we can distinguish between organisms and machines. Next, we discuss whether the products of synthetic biology can be considered organisms at all and assess what their moral value is and how should we behave towards them. Finally, we discuss the hypothetical case of synthetic humans.

(Re-)Designing Nature? An Overview and Outlook on the Ethical and Societal Challenges in Synthetic Biology.

This structured literature analysis aims to map the current, emerging, and predicted future of synthetic biology (SB) by putting the focus on the implied conceptual, societal, and ethical challenges. The central objective of the analysis is to provide an initial systematization of the ethical and socio-scientific debate on SB by structuring and categorizing widely discussed issues within the debate in recent years. Starting with the quest for possible definitions, issues of biosafety and biosecurity are emphasized. Furthermore, the focus is on the more conceptual challenges of SB, including the relationship between natural and synthetic, or concepts of life and living. From the very beginning, one specific characteristic of SB has been a strong entanglement with different forms of public participation. In some respects SB has already taken a leading position in claiming and orchestrating itself as an integrative and participatory discipline. After addressing SB as an emerging biotechnology at the interface between science and society, a venture is initiated to focus on the possible regulatory and governmental challenges which are entangled in SB.

Synthetic Biology Ethics at iGEM: iGEMer Perspectives.

The Human Practice (HP) work of the international Genetically Engineered Machine (iGEM) competition can serve as a great example of integrating ethical considerations into synthetic biology research. By highlighting three independent perspectives from those involved in various aspects of iGEM, here we aim to provide an informative picture of how ethical issues are approached within the iGEM competition.

Constructing future scenarios as a tool to foster responsible research and innovation among future synthetic biologists.

The emerging field of synthetic biology, the (re-)designing and construction of biological parts, devices and systems for useful purposes, may simultaneously resolve some issues and raise others. In order to develop applications robustly and in the public interest, it is important to organize reflexive strategies of assessment and engagement in early stages of development. Against this backdrop, initiatives related to the concept of Responsible Research and Innovation (RRI) have also appeared. This paper describes such an initiative: the construction of future scenarios to explore the plausibility and desirability of potential synthetic biology innovations. We guided teams of synthetic biology students who participated in the large international Genetically Engineered Machines (iGEM) competition, in constructing scenarios aimed at exploring the plausibility and desirability of potential synthetic biology innovations. In this paper we aim to examine to what extent, and how, constructing such future scenarios contributes to RRI. In order to do so, we conducted observations and interviews to understand what kind of learning and reflection was promoted by constructing the scenarios in terms of four dimensions, which are discussed prominently in the literature on RRI: anticipation, inclusion, reflexivity and responsiveness. While we focus on how constructing future scenarios can contribute to strengthening RRI at a project (and individual) level, we also consider how far our experiment may foster RRI in the iGEM competition in general, and perhaps even inspire constructive collaboration between 'social scientists' and 'natural scientists' in the context of larger scientific research programmes.

¿Existe una frontera nítida entre lo vivo y lo inerte? / Is there a clear border between the living and the inert? / Existeix una frontera nítida entre el viu i l'inert?

El origen de la vida es una de las temáticas que más fascinación despierta, no solo en el mundo científico. Sin embargo, pocas materias pueden resultar más frustrantes a la hora de ser abordadas. Pues bien, analizaremos en el presente artículo cuáles son los criterios de distinción entre lo vivo y lo inerte. En aras de clarificar las diferentes posiciones hemos creado un modelo con dos variables, "materia viva"-"materia inerte", que arroja un total de cuatro combinaciones posibles. Cada una de estas combinaciones representa un paradigma de pensamiento con sus propios axiomas, preguntas a resolver, anomalías y contradicciones. Con el modelo pretendemos clasificar todas las posiciones existentes en lo referente a la aparición de la vida, de forma que cualquier autor que haya reflexionado sobre la cuestión pueda sentirse identificado con alguna de las combinaciones y observar in situ su propia Weltanschauung, incluidas las limitaciones, aporías y cuestiones irresolubles

Abortion is analyzed as a social good. This article considers the different views society has regarding abortion and its regulation. The positions of different social actors are criticized, when related to the view of the Catholic Church or pro-life positions, for social actors should not be influenced by their personal beliefs but by the requirements of public policy and people's needs. The need of de-penalizing abortion is defended based on public health and women's dignity

L'origen de la vida és una de les temàtiques que més fascinació desvetlla, i no solament en el món científic. No obstant això, poques matèries poden resultar més frustrants a l'hora de ser abordades. En el present article s'analitzen quins són els criteris de distinció entre el viu i l'inert. A fi d'esclarir les diferents posicions hem creat un model amb dues variables, "matèria viva" i "matèria inert", la qual cosa dóna quatre combinacions possibles. Cadascuna d'aquestes combinacions representa un paradigma de pensament amb els seus propis axiomes, preguntes per resoldre, anomalies i contradiccions. Amb el model pretenem classificar totes les posicions existents sobre l'aparició de la vida, de manera que qualsevol autor que hagi reflexionat sobre la qüestió pugui sentir-se identificat amb alguna de les combinacions i observar in situ la seva pròpia Weltanschauung, incloses les limitacions, les apories i les qüestions irresolubles

Synthetic biology in the German press: how implications of metaphors shape representations of morality and responsibility.

Synthetic biology (SynBio) represents a relatively young field of research which has developed into an important scientific endeavour. Characterised by a high degree of interdisciplinary work crossing disciplinary boundaries, such as biology, mathematics and engineering, SynBio has been, since its beginning, devoted to creating new biological functions, metabolic pathways or even minimal organisms. Although its often-articulated aim of developing new forms of life has so far not been archived, SynBio nowadays represents a well-established biotechnological approach and it has also attracted public concern, especially since Craig Venter's work on Mycoplasma Mycoides JCVI-syn1.0. Taking these developments as a starting point, the paper empirically investigates the metaphorical representations of SynBio in two leading German media publications, the daily newspaper Die Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung and the weekly magazine Der Spiegel between 2000 and 2010. Using a novel combination of metaphor and co-occurrence analysis, the paper engages in a systematic examination of implicit moral implications inherent in linguistic images permeating this news coverage. It demonstrates a method of how media-metaphorical representations and their moral implications of SynBio could analytically be revealed and analysed. In doing so, it aims at contributing to empirical ethical analyses of the news coverage on SynBio in particular and offers an approach that methodologically adds to literature on responsible language use, which is emerging in science and technology studies and ethical analyses of new technologies.