In vitro antileishmanial activity of thioridazine on amphotericin B unresponsive/ sensitive Leishmania donovani promastigotes and intracellular amastigotes.

The recent increase in the drug (liposomal amphotericin-B) unresponsive cases becomes hostile for the visceral leishmaniasis (VL) elimination target. The quest for new antileishmanial drugs is on the way and may demand more time. Meanwhile, drug repurposing is a quite promising option to explore further. We made such an attempt with thioridazine (TRZ), a first-line antipsychotic drug, which was reported for antimicrobial activity. In this study, we evaluated the drug activity of TRZ against amphotericin-B (Amp-B) sensitive and unresponsive Leishmania donovani promastigotes, as well as intracellular amastigotes (drug sensitive). We observed a potent antileishmanial activity of TRZ with significantly low half maximal inhibitory concentrations (IC50) on both the variants of promastigotes (0.61 ± 0.15 µM). These concentrations are comparable to the previously reported IC50 concentration of the current antileishmanial drug (Amp-B) against L. donovani. Light microscopy reveals the perturbations in promastigote morphology upon TRZ treatment. The in vitro studies on human macrophage cell lines determine the 50% cytotoxicity concentration (CC50) of TRZ on host cells as 20.046 µM and a half maximal effective concentration (EC50) as 0.91 µM during L. donovani infection, in turn selectivity index (SI) was calculated as 22.03 µM. Altogether, the results demonstrate that TRZ has the potential for drug repurposing and further studies on animal models could provide better insights for VL treatment.

Thioridazine reverses trastuzumab resistance in gastric cancer by inhibiting S-phase kinase associated protein 2-mediated aerobic glycolysis.

BACKGROUND: Trastuzumab constitutes the fundamental component of initial therapy for patients with advanced human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER-2)-positive gastric cancer (GC). However, the efficacy of this treatment is hindered by substantial challenges associated with both primary and acquired drug resistance. While S-phase kinase associated protein 2 (Skp2) overexpression has been implicated in the malignant progression of GC, its role in regulating trastuzumab resistance in this context remains uncertain. Despite the numerous studies investigating Skp2 inhibitors among small molecule compounds and natural products, there has been a lack of successful commercialization of drugs specifically targeting Skp2. AIM: To discover a Skp2 blocker among currently available medications and develop a therapeutic strategy for HER2-positive GC patients who have experienced progression following trastuzumab-based treatment. METHODS: Skp2 exogenous overexpression plasmids and small interfering RNA vectors were utilized to investigate the correlation between Skp2 expression and trastuzumab resistance in GC cells. Q-PCR, western blot, and immunohistochemical analyses were conducted to evaluate the regulatory effect of thioridazine on Skp2 expression. A cell counting kit-8 assay, flow cytometry, a amplex red glucose/glucose oxidase assay kit, and a lactate assay kit were utilized to measure the proliferation, apoptosis, and glycolytic activity of GC cells in vitro. A xenograft model established with human GC in nude mice was used to assess thioridazine's effectiveness in vivo. RESULTS: The expression of Skp2 exhibited a negative correlation with the sensitivity of HER2-positive GC cells to trastuzumab. Thioridazine demonstrated the ability to directly bind to Skp2, resulting in a reduction in Skp2 expression at both the transcriptional and translational levels. Moreover, thioridazine effectively inhibited cell proliferation, exhibited antiapoptotic properties, and decreased the glucose uptake rate and lactate production by suppressing Skp2/protein kinase B/mammalian target of rapamycin/glucose transporter type 1 signaling pathways. The combination of thioridazine with either trastuzumab or lapatinib exhibited a more pronounced anticancer effect in vivo, surpassing the efficacy of either monotherapy. CONCLUSION: Thioridazine demonstrates promising outcomes in preclinical GC models and offers a novel therapeutic approach for addressing trastuzumab resistance, particularly when used in conjunction with lapatinib. This compound has potential benefits for patients with Skp2-proficient tumors.

Thioridazine protects against disturbed flow-induced atherosclerosis by inhibiting RhoA/YAP-mediated endothelial inflammation.

Atherosclerotic diseases remain the leading cause of adult mortality and impose heavy burdens on health systems globally. Our previous study found that disturbed flow enhanced YAP activity to provoke endothelial activation and atherosclerosis, and targeting YAP alleviated endothelial inflammation and atherogenesis. Therefore, we established a luciferase reporter assay-based drug screening platform to seek out new YAP inhibitors for anti-atherosclerotic treatment. By screening the FDA-approved drug library, we identified that an anti-psychotic drug thioridazine markedly suppressed YAP activity in human endothelial cells. Thioridazine inhibited disturbed flow-induced endothelial inflammatory response in vivo and in vitro. We verified that the anti-inflammatory effects of thioridazine were mediated by inhibition of YAP. Thioridazine regulated YAP activity via restraining RhoA. Moreover, administration of thioridazine attenuated partial carotid ligation- and western diet-induced atherosclerosis in two mouse models. Overall, this work opens up the possibility of repurposing thioridazine for intervention of atherosclerotic diseases. This study also shed light on the underlying mechanisms that thioridazine inhibited endothelial activation and atherogenesis via repression of RhoA-YAP axis. As a new YAP inhibitor, thioridazine might need further investigation and development for the treatment of atherosclerotic diseases in clinical practice.

Combination of Antimalarial and CNS Drugs with Antineoplastic Agents in MCF-7 Breast and HT-29 Colon Cancer Cells: Biosafety Evaluation and Mechanism of Action.

Drug combination and drug repurposing are two strategies that allow to find novel oncological therapies, in a faster and more economical process. In our previous studies, we developed a novel model of drug combination using antineoplastic and different repurposed drugs. We demonstrated the combinations of doxorubicin (DOX) + artesunate, DOX + chloroquine, paclitaxel (PTX) + fluoxetine, PTX + fluphenazine, and PTX + benztropine induce significant cytotoxicity in Michigan Cancer Foundation-7 (MCF-7) breast cancer cells. Furthermore, it was found that 5-FU + thioridazine and 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) + sertraline can synergistically induce a reduction in the viability of human colorectal adenocarcinoma cell line (HT-29). In this study, we aim to (1) evaluate the biosafety profile of these drug combinations for non-tumoral cells and (2) determine their mechanism of action in cancer cells. To do so, human fetal lung fibroblast cells (MRC-5) fibroblast cells were incubated for 48 h with all drugs, alone and in combination in concentrations of 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, and 4 times their half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50). Cell morphology and viability were evaluated. Next, we designed and constructed a cell microarray to perform immunohistochemistry studies for the evaluation of palmitoyl-protein thioesterase 1 (PPT1), Ki67, cleaved-poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (cleaved-PARP), multidrug resistance-associated protein 2 (MRP2), P-glycoprotein (P-gp), and nuclear factor-kappa-B (NF-kB) p65 expression. We demonstrate that these combinations are cytotoxic for cancer cells and safe for non-tumoral cells at lower concentrations. Furthermore, it is also demonstrated that PPT1 may have an important role in the mechanism of action of these combinations, as demonstrated by their ability to decrease PPT1 expression. These results support the use of antimalarial and central nervous system (CNS) drugs in combination regimens with chemotherapeutic agents; nevertheless, additional studies are recommended to further explore their complete mechanisms of action.

Thioridazine reverts the phenotype in cellular and Drosophila models of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis by enhancing TDP-43 aggregate clearance.

Brain inclusions mainly composed of misfolded and aggregated TAR DNA binding protein 43 (TDP-43), are characteristic hallmarks of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Irrespective of the role played by the inclusions, their reduction represents an important therapeutic pathway that is worth exploring. Their removal can either lead to the recovery of TDP-43 function by removing the self-templating conformers that sequester the protein in the inclusions, and/or eliminate any potential intrinsic toxicity of the aggregates. The search for curative therapies has been hampered by the lack of ALS models for use in high-throughput screening. We adapted, optimised, and extensively characterised our previous ALS cellular model for such use. The model demonstrated efficient aggregation of endogenous TDP-43, and concomitant loss of its splicing regulation function. We provided a proof-of-principle for its eventual use in high-throughput screening using compounds of the tricyclic family and showed that recovery of TDP-43 function can be achieved by the enhanced removal of TDP-43 aggregates by these compounds. We observed that the degradation of the aggregates occurs independent of the autophagy pathway beyond autophagosome-lysosome fusion, but requires a functional proteasome pathway. The in vivo translational effect of the cellular model was tested with two of these compounds in a Drosophila model expressing a construct analogous to the cellular model, where thioridazine significantly improved the locomotive defect. Our findings have important implications as thioridazine cleared TDP-43 aggregates and recovered TDP-43 functionality. This study also highlights the importance of a two-stage, in vitro and in vivo model system to cross-check the search for small molecules that can clear TDP-43 aggregates in TDP-43 proteinopathies.

Thioridazine hydrochloride: an antipsychotic agent that inhibits tumor growth and lung metastasis in triple-negative breast cancer via inducing G0/G1 arrest and apoptosis.

ABBREVIATIONS: CCK8: Cell Counting Kit-8; CDK: cyclin-dependent kinase; DRD2: dopamine D2 receptor; ERK1/2: extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2; GAPDH: glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase; H&E: hematoxylin and eosin; MMP: membrane potential; NAC: N-acetyl-L-cysteine; PI: Propidium iodide; Rh123: rhodamine-123; ROS: reactive oxygen species; TBST: tris-buffered saline containing 0.1% Tween 20 TNBC: Triple-negative breast cancer; Thi-hyd: Thioridazine hydrochloride.

Antiviral activity of chlorpromazine, fluphenazine, perphenazine, prochlorperazine, and thioridazine towards RNA-viruses. A review.

In 2020 the whole world focused on antivirus drugs towards SARS-CoV-2. Most of the researchers focused on drugs used in other viral infections or malaria. We have not seen such mobilization towards one topic in this century. The whole situation makes clear that progress needs to be made in antiviral drug development. The first step to do it is to characterize the potential antiviral activity of new or already existed drugs on the market. Phenothiazines are antipsychotic agents used previously as antiseptics, anthelminthics, and antimalarials. Up to date, they are tested for a number of other disorders including the broad spectrum of viruses. The goal of this paper was to summarize the current literature on activity toward RNA-viruses of such drugs like chlorpromazine, fluphenazine, perphenazine, prochlorperazine, and thioridazine. We identified 49 papers, where the use of the phenothiazines for 23 viruses from different families were tested. Chlorpromazine, fluphenazine, perphenazine, prochlorperazine, and thioridazine possess anti-viral activity towards different types of viruses. These drugs inhibit clathrin-dependent endocytosis, cell-cell fusion, infection, replication of the virus, decrease viral invasion as well as suppress entry into the host cells. Additionally, since the drugs display activity at nontoxic concentrations they have therapeutic potential for some viruses, still, further research on animal and human subjects are needed in this field to verify cell base research.

In vivo effects of the association of the psychoactive phenotiazine thioridazine on antitumor activity and hind limb paralysis induced by the native polypeptide crotamine.

Crotamine is a cationic polypeptide composed by 42 amino acid residues with several pharmacological and biological properties, including the selective ability to enter and kill actively proliferating tumour cells, which led us to propose its use as a theranostic agent for cancer therapy. At the moment, the improvement of crotamine antitumoral efficacy by association with chemotherapeutic adjuvants is envisioned. In the present work, we evaluated the association of crotamine with the antitumoral adjuvant phenotiazine thioridazine (THD). In spite of the clear efficacy of these both compounds as anticancer agents in long-term in vivo treatment of animal model bearing implanted xenograph melanoma tumor, the expected mutual potentiation of the antitumor effects was not observed here. Moreover, this association revealed for the first time the influence of THD on crotamine ability to trigger the hind limb paralysis in mice, and this discovery may represent the first report suggesting the potential involvement of the CNS in the action of this snake polypeptide on the skeletal muscle paralysis, which was classically believed to be essentially limited to a direct action in peripheral tissues as the skeletal muscle. This is also supported by the observed ability of crotamine to potentiate the sedative effects of THD which action was consistently demonstrated to be based on its central action. The better characterization of crotamine properties in CNS may certainly bring important insights for the knowledge needed to pave the way toward the use of this molecule as a theranostic compound in human diseases as cancer.

Thioridazine aggravates skeletal myositis, systemic and liver inflammation in Trypanosoma cruzi-infected and benznidazole-treated mice.

While thioridazine (Tio) inhibits the antioxidant defenses of Trypanosoma cruzi, the gold standard antitrypanosomal drug benznidazole (Bz) has potent anti-inflammatory and pro-oxidant properties. The combination of these drugs has never been tested to determine the effect on T. cruzi infection. Thus, we compared the impact of Tio and Bz, administered alone and in combination, on the development of skeletal myositis and liver inflammation in T. cruzi-infected mice. Swiss mice were randomized into six groups: uninfected untreated, infected untreated, treated with Tio (80 mg/kg) alone, Bz (50 or 100 mg/kg) alone, or a combination of Tio and Bz. Infected animals were inoculated with a virulent T. cruzi strain (Y) and treated by gavage for 20 days. Mice untreated or treated with Tio alone developed the most intense parasitemia, highest parasitic load, elevated IL-10, IL-17, IFN-γ, and TNF-α plasma levels, increased N-acetylglucosaminidase and myeloperoxidase activity in the liver and skeletal muscle, as well as severe myositis and liver inflammation (P < 0.05). All parameters were markedly attenuated in animals receiving Bz alone (P < 0.05). However, the co-administration of Tio impaired the response to Bz chemotherapy, causing a decrease in parasitological control (parasitemia and parasite load), skeletal muscle and liver inflammation, and increased microstructural damage, when compared to the group receiving Bz alone (P < 0.05). Altogether, our findings indicated that Tio aggravates systemic inflammation, skeletal myositis and hepatic inflammatory damage in T. cruzi-infected mice. By antagonizing the antiparasitic potential of Bz, Tio limits the anti-inflammatory, myoprotectant and hepatoprotective effects of the reference chemotherapy, aggravating the pathological remodeling of both organs. As the interaction of T. cruzi infection, Bz and Tio is potentially toxic to the liver, inducing inflammation and microvesicular steatosis; this drug combination represents a worrying pharmacological risk factor in Chagas disease.

Importancia de las arritmias cardiacas inducidas por tioridazina en las edades geriátricas / Importance of the heart arrhythmias induced by thioridazine in geriatric ages

RESUMEN Introducción: la discapacidad mental, íntimamente relacionada con el incremento de la expectativa de vida, se considera uno de los problemas más graves que hay que enfrentar en la centuria recién iniciada. Esto trae consigo el aumento de la prescripción de agentes anti psicóticos, como la tioridazina, lo que tiende a convertirse en un problema de salud al causar arritmias y en ocasiones fatales. Aún no se conoce en qué grado estas alteraciones son responsables de algunas muertes súbitas ocurridas en personas que tomaban estos medicamentos. Objetivo: identificar cuáles son las alteraciones clínicas y electrocardiográficas en los pacientes que usan la tioridazina, como droga de elección en los trastornos psiquiátricos. Materiales y métodos: se realizó un estudio descriptivo, a los ancianos atendidos en el Servicio de Geriatría que ingieran tioridazina, en cualquier dosis. Durante al período de marzo del año 2017 hasta marzo del 2018. Resultados: predominaron los ancianos del sexo femenino y comprendido en las edades 60 y 74 años, con nivel de escolaridad secundario, lo que se correlacionó con la doble función de la mujer en la sociedad actual, y el elevado nivel de escolaridad de la ciudadanía cubana. Predominaron antecedentes de hipertensión arterial y diabetes, al igual las palpitaciones en relación a un aumento de los bloqueos del has de his, observados en los electrocardiogramas. No se presentaron fallecidos. Conclusiones: deben utilizarse dosis bajas del medicamento, por corto tiempo y bajo supervisión electrocardiográfica (AU).

ABSTRACT Introduction: mental incapacity, tightly related to the life expectancy increase, is considered one of the most serious problems to afford in the current century. It brings about the increase of the prescription of anti-psychotic agents, like thioridazine, tending to become a health problem because of causing arrhythmias that are occasionally life-threatening. It is still unknown in what level these alterations are responsible for several sudden deaths in persons who took these drugs. Objective: to identify which are the clinical and electrocardiographic alterations in patients using thioridazine as drug of choice in psychiatric disorders. Materials and methods: a descriptive study was carried out in all patients who attended the Geriatric Service taking thioridazine in any doses during the period from March 2017 to March 2018. Results: female elder people aged 60-74 years predominated, with secondary school scholarship, finding a relationship with the double function of women in the current society, and the high level of scholarship among Cuban citizen. Arterial hypertension and diabetes antecedents predominated, and also palpitations related to the increase of His bundle blockade observed in electrocardiograms. There were no deaths. Conclusions: low doses of the drug should be used for a short time and under electrocardiographic supervision (AU).

Cocktail Strategy Based on Spatio-Temporally Controlled Nano Device Improves Therapy of Breast Cancer.

Metastatic breast cancer may be resistant to chemo-immunotherapy due to the existence of cancer stem cells (CSC). Also, the control of particle size and drug release of a drug carrier for multidrug combination is a key issue influencing the therapy effect. Here, a cocktail strategy is reported, in which chemotherapy against both bulk tumor cells and CSC and immune checkpoint blockade therapy are intergraded into one drug delivery system. The chemotherapeutic agent paclitaxel (PTX), the anti-CSC agent thioridazine (THZ), and the PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitor HY19991 (HY) are all incorporated into an enzyme/pH dual-sensitive nanoparticle with a micelle-liposome double-layer structure. The particle size shrinks when the nanoparticle transfers from circulation to tumor tissues, favoring both pharmacokinetics and cellular uptake, meanwhile achieving sequential drug release where needed. This nano device, named PM@THL, increases the intratumoral drug concentrations in mice and exhibits significant anticancer efficacy, with tumor inhibiting rate of 93.45% and lung metastasis suppression rate of 97.64%. It also reduces the proportion of CSC and enhances the T cells infiltration in tumor tissues, and thus prolongs the survival of mice. The cocktail therapy based on the spatio-temporally controlled nano device will be a promising strategy for treating breast cancer.

Targeting TCTP with Sertraline and Thioridazine in Cancer Treatment.

We have initially demonstrated in knocking down experiments that decreasing TCTP in cancer cells leads in some tissues to cell death while in others to a complete reorganization of the tumor into architectural structures reminiscent of normal ones. Based on these experiments and a series of other findings confirming the key role of TCTP in cancer, it became important to find pharmacological compounds to inhibit its function, and this became for us a priority. In the present text, we explain in detail the experiments that were performed and the perspectives of sertraline in cancer treatment, as this became today a reality with a clinical study that started in collaboration with Columbia University and Johns Hopkins University.

Combination of thioridazine and dicloxacillin as a possible treatment strategy of staphylococci.

We have previously shown that the phenothiazine, thioridazine, acts in synergy with the beta-lactam antibiotic, dicloxacillin, to kill methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. In this study, we investigated whether synergy by combining these two drugs could also be observed in vancomycin intermediate susceptible S. aureus (VISA) and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis (MRSE). Synergy was observed in three of four tested VISA strains, suggesting that the thickening of cell wall does not interfere with the effects of thioridazine. In S. epidermidis, no synergy was observed in all tested strains, suggesting that synergy by combining thioridazine and dicloxacillin is isolated to S. aureus species.

Systemic thioridazine in combination with dicloxacillin against early aortic graft infections caused by Staphylococcus aureus in a porcine model: In vivo results do not reproduce the in vitro synergistic activity.

INTRODUCTION: Conservative treatment solutions against aortic prosthetic vascular graft infection (APVGI) for inoperable patients are limited. The combination of antibiotics with antibacterial helper compounds, such as the neuroleptic drug thioridazine (TDZ), should be explored. AIM: To investigate the efficacy of conservative systemic treatment with dicloxacillin (DCX) in combination with TDZ (DCX+TDZ), compared to DCX alone, against early APVGI caused by methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA) in a porcine model. METHODS: The synergism of DCX+TDZ against MSSA was initially assessed in vitro by viability assay. Thereafter, thirty-two pigs had polyester grafts implanted in the infrarenal aorta, followed by inoculation with 106 CFU of MSSA, and were randomly administered oral systemic treatment with either 1) DCX or 2) DCX+TDZ. Treatment was initiated one week postoperatively and continued for a further 21 days. Weight, temperature, and blood samples were collected at predefined intervals. By termination, bacterial quantities from the graft surface, graft material, and perigraft tissue were obtained. RESULTS: Despite in vitro synergism, the porcine experiment revealed no statistical differences for bacteriological endpoints between the two treatment groups, and none of the treatments eradicated the APVGI. Accordingly, the mixed model analyses of weight, temperature, and blood samples revealed no statistical differences. CONCLUSION: Conservative systemic treatment with DCX+TDZ did not reproduce in vitro results against APVGI caused by MSSA in this porcine model. However, unexpected severe adverse effects related to the planned dose of TDZ required a considerable reduction to the administered dose of TDZ, which may have compromised the results.

The Anticancer Activity of the Old Neuroleptic Phenothiazine-type Drug Thioridazine.

Thioridazine (TZ), an antipsychotic drug, renders multidrug-resistant (MDR) cancer cells susceptible to cytotoxic agents to which they were initially resistant, has anti-prolilferative activity and apoptosis-inducing properties in various tumor cell lines and cancer stem cells. Whereas the anti-proliferative activity takes place at high concentrations that ensure the intercalation of the compound between nucleic bases (especially rich in G/C bases), much lower concentrations inhibit the export function of the ABCB1 (P-glycoprotein), which is responsible for the MDR phenotype of the cancer cell. The co-administration of TZ with doxorubicin inhibits efflux of doxorubicin and, hence, increases the intracellular concentration of anticancer drug. The (+) and (-) enantiomers of TZ have the same activities as TZ. The main focus of this review is to present extensive evidence provided by our work, confirmed by much later studies, as it supports adjuvant use of TZ with an anticancer drug for MDR cancer therapy.

In vitro evaluation of novel inhalable dry powders consisting of thioridazine and rifapentine for rapid tuberculosis treatment.

Thioridazine is an orally administered antipsychotic drug with potential for treatment of drug-resistant tuberculosis (TB). However, drug-induced adverse cardiac effects have been reported when thioridazine was used at an efficacious oral dose of 200mg/day to treat TB. Pulmonary delivery of thioridazine could be a rational approach to reduce dose-related side effects while enabling high drug concentrations at the primary site of infection. The present study compares in vitro aerosol performance, storage stability, and in vitro antimicrobial activity and cytotoxicity of two inhalable powders composed of thioridazine and a first-line anti-TB drug, rifapentine. Formulation 1 is a combination of amorphous thioridazine and crystalline rifapentine, while Formulation 2 consisted of both drugs as amorphous forms. Both thioridazine-rifapentine formulations were found suitable for inhalation with a total fine particle fraction (<5µm) of 68-76%. The two powders had similar MIC90 to rifapentine alone, being 0.000625µg/mL and 0.005µg/ml against Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Ra and M. tuberculosis H37Rv, respectively. In contrast, thioridazine alone had a MIC90 of 12.5µg/mL and 500µg/mL, against M. tuberculosis H37Ra and M. tuberculosis H37Rv, respectively, demonstrating no synergistic anti-TB activity. However, thioridazine and rifapentine in a ratio of 1:3 enhanced the killing of M. tuberculosis H37Ra within the human monocyte-derived macrophages (THP-1) compared to the single drug treatments. Both powders showed an acceptable half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 31.25µg/mL on both THP-1 and human lung epithelial (A549) cells. However, Formulation 1 showed greater chemical stability than Formulation 2 after three months of storage under low humidity (vacuum) at 20±3°C. In conclusion, we have demonstrated a novel inhalable powder consisted of amorphous thioridazine and crystalline rifapentine (Formulation 1) with a good aerosol performance, potent anti-TB activity and storage stability, which deserves further in vivo investigations.

[The efficacy of benzodiazepines and low-potent antipsychotics as adjunctive therapy of somatoform disorders].

OBJECTIVE: To assess the efficacy of monotherapy with sertraline or its combinations with phenazepam or thioridazine in patients with somatoform disorders. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The open study included 65 patients divided into three groups according to the drug used. Clinical condition of the patients was evaluated with CGI and Hamilton scale. The Screening for Somatoform Symptoms 7 was administered as well. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: During the treatment, a significant decrease in the severity of somatoform disorders was observed in all groups. The more rapid development of therapeutic effect, including the reduction in anxiety symptoms in the sertraline + phenazepam group, was found. There were no significant differences between the sertraline group and the sertraline+ thioridazine group. The differences were identified only during three weeks of treatment while there were no between-group differences in the 4th week. In accordance to these results, the duration of adjunctive therapy with benzodiazepines should be limited in time.

Thioridazine in PLGA nanoparticles reduces toxicity and improves rifampicin therapy against mycobacterial infection in zebrafish.

Encapsulating antibiotics such as rifampicin in biodegradable nanoparticles provides several advantages compared to free drug administration, including reduced dosing due to localized targeting and sustained release. Consequently, these characteristics reduce systemic drug toxicity. However, new nanoformulations need to be tested in complex biological systems to fully characterize their potential for improved drug therapy. Tuberculosis, caused by infection with the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis, requires lengthy and expensive treatment, and incomplete therapy contributes to an increasing incidence of drug resistance. Recent evidence suggests that standard therapy may be improved by combining antibiotics with bacterial efflux pump inhibitors, such as thioridazine. However, this drug is difficult to use clinically due to its toxicity. Here, we encapsulated thioridazine in poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid nanoparticles and tested them alone and in combination with rifampicin nanoparticles, or free rifampicin in macrophages and in a zebrafish model of tuberculosis. Whereas free thioridazine was highly toxic in both cells and zebrafish embryos, after encapsulation in nanoparticles no toxicity was detected. When combined with rifampicin nanoparticles, the nanoparticles loaded with thioridazine gave a modest increase in killing of both Mycobacterium bovis BCG and M. tuberculosis in macrophages. In the zebrafish, the thioridazine nanoparticles showed a significant therapeutic effect in combination with rifampicin by enhancing embryo survival and reducing mycobacterial infection. Our results show that the zebrafish embryo is a highly sensitive indicator of drug toxicity and that thioridazine nanoparticle therapy can improve the antibacterial effect of rifampicin in vivo.

Higher serum concentrations of tyrosine and glutamate in schizophrenia patients treated with clozapine, compared to in those treated with conventional antipsychotics.

RATIONALE: The effect of long-term treatment with the atypical antipsychotic clozapine on the serum amino acid profile in schizophrenia patients has not previously been studied. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to compare serum amino acid patterns in patients on long-term clozapine treatment with long-term conventional antipsychotic treatment, and their relationships to insulin resistance and antipsychotic serum concentrations. METHODS: Thirty-three patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder on long-term treatment (mean 8.3 years) with clozapine (n=20) or conventional antipsychotics (n=13) were studied. Amino acids were quantified in fasting serum samples by ion exchange chromatography and markers of insulin resistance and antipsychotic drug concentrations were determined by standard methods. RESULTS: Several amino acids, most notably tyrosine and glutamic acid, were elevated above the reference range in several patients receiving clozapine. Additionally, significantly higher mean values of tyrosine (1.5-fold, p=0.001), glutamic acid (2-fold, p=0.0005) and six other amino acids were observed in the clozapine group than in the conventional antipsychotic group. Several amino acids were related to insulin resistance in both treatment groups. CONCLUSIONS: In this study, we show that serum tyrosine and glutamic acid concentrations are markedly elevated in patients on long-term clozapine treatment, compared to patients on long-term conventional antipsychotic treatment. These findings are of importance since these two amino acids have been implicated in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia.

Phenothiazines as a solution for multidrug resistant tuberculosis: From the origin to present.

Historically, multiplicity of actions in synthetic compounds is a rule rather than exception. The science of non-antibiotics evolved in this background. From the antimalarial and antitrypanosomial dye methylene blue, chemically similar compounds, the phenothiazines, were developed. The phenothiazines were first recognised for their antipsychotic properties, but soon after their antimicrobial functions came to be known and then such compounds were designated as non-antibiotics. The emergence of highly drug-resistant bacteria had initiated an urgent need to search for novel affordable compounds. Several phenothiazines awakened the interest among scientists to determine their antimycobacterial activity. Chlorpromazine, trifluoperazine, methdilazine and thioridazine were found to have distinct antitubercular action. Thioridazine took the lead as researchers repeatedly claimed its potentiality. Although thioridazine is known for its central nervous system and cardiotoxic side-effects, extensive and repeated in vitro and in vivo studies by several research groups revealed that a very small dose of thioridazine is required to kill tubercle bacilli inside macrophages in the lungs, where the bacteria try to remain and multiply silently. Such a small dose is devoid of its adverse side-effects. Recent studies have shown that the (-) thioridazine is a more active antimicrobial agent and devoid of the toxic side effects normally encountered. This review describes the possibilities of bringing down thioridazine and its (-) form to be combined with other antitubercular drugs to treat infections by drug-resistant strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and try to eradicate this deadly disease.