Prevalência de Tracoma em crianças em idade escolar no município de Turmalina, MG / Trachoma prevalence among schoolchildren in the municipality of Turmalina, Minas Gerais state

RESUMO O tracoma, tido equivocadamente como erradicado em nosso meio, encontra-se na lista de doenças negligenciadas. Trata-se da maior causa de cegueira evitável do mundo, sendo encontrado predominantemente nos países subdesenvolvidos. Diversos trabalhos têm demonstrado que esta doença atualmente se faz presente em todas as regiões do Brasil, o que evidencia que tanto o governo (nas esferas federal, estadual e municipal), quanto a academia devem continuar a considerar o tracoma entre as causas de cegueira em nosso meio. Neste trabalho, procurou-se levantar a prevalência de tracoma entre as crianças de sete a quinze anos matriculadas nas escolas da rede pública do município de Turmalina, MG. A pesquisa foi realizada neste município, situado no Vale do Jequitinhonha, considerando que existem nele regiões com populações em situação de alta vulnerabilidade social, portanto com características propícias para o surgimento da doença. Participaram da pesquisa seis médicos e onze enfermeiros com atuação na atenção primária, capacitados e padronizados para tal. Os profissionais de saúde realizaram o exame de 635 estudantes entre 7 a 15 anos nas escolas públicas de Turmalina, MG. Os estudantes com diagnóstico clínico de tracoma foram submetidos à raspagem de conjuntiva com swab e o material enviado para análise laboratorial. Todos os estudantes diagnosticados com tracoma foram tratados no Sistema Único de Saúde (SUS). Os dados coletados foram analisados com auxílio do software Statistical Package for Social Sciences, IBM Inc., USA - SPSS, versão 22.0. Entre os estudantes foi encontrada uma prevalência do tracoma de 4,7%, com predomínio nas áreas rurais.

ABSTRACT Trachoma has been mistakenly assumed as having been eradicated, but is on the list of neglected diseases. It is the leading cause of preventable blindness in the world, being found predominantly in developing countries. Several studies have shown that this disease is currently present in all regions of Brazil, which shows that both the government (at the federal, state and municipal levels) and academia must continue to treat trachoma as one of the causes of blindness. In this study, we sought to identify the prevalence of trachoma among schoolchildren aged between seven and 15 years from public schools in the municipality of Turmalina, Minas Gerais state. The survey was conducted in this municipality, located in the Jequitinhonha Valley, a region that contains populations who live in situations of high social vulnerability, and thus display the characteristics that are conducive to the emergence of the disease. The participants were six doctors and 11 nurses working in primary healthcare, trained and standardized to do so. Health professionals examined 635 students aged 7-15 years in the public schools of Turmalina. Students with a clinical diagnosis of trachoma underwent conjunctiva scraping with a swab and the material was sent for laboratory analysis. All school children diagnosed with trachoma were treated at the Unified Health System (SUS). The collected data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences software, IBM Inc., USA - SPSS, version 22.0. Among the students, a 4.7% prevalence rate of trachoma was found, predominantly in rural areas.

Agreement between novice and experienced trachoma graders improves after a single day of didactic training.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Prevalence estimates and treatment decisions for trachoma are based entirely on ocular clinical examination. The aim of the current study is to demonstrate that ophthalmic assistants can be trained and certified to provide trachoma grading within a single day. METHODS: Conjunctival photographs from an area with endemic trachoma were randomised into two sets of 60 cases. Photographs were graded for trachomatous inflammation-follicular (TF) and trachomatous inflammation-intense (TI) by three experienced graders. Inter-rater reliability of eight ophthalmic assistants and three experienced graders were compared before and after training. RESULTS: The mean κ agreement between the ophthalmic assistants and the consensus grades of the experienced graders for TF was 0.38 (95% CI 0.18 to 0.58) before training, and increased to 0.60 (95% CI 0.42 to 0.78) after training (p=0.07). The mean κ agreement for TI was 0.16 (95% CI 0.02 to 0.30) before training, and increased to 0.39 (95% CI 0.20 to 0.58) after training (p=0.02). CONCLUSION: A single day of training improves agreement between prospective and experienced trachoma graders, and provides the basis for certification of workers who are able to accurately grade trachoma and generate reliable prevalence estimates.

Inter-Rater Agreement between Trachoma Graders: Comparison of Grades Given in Field Conditions versus Grades from Photographic Review.

PURPOSE: Trachoma surveillance is most commonly performed by direct observation, usually by non-ophthalmologists using the World Health Organization (WHO) simplified grading system. However, conjunctival photographs may offer several benefits over direct clinical observation, including the potential for greater inter-rater agreement. This study assesses whether inter-rater agreement of trachoma grading differs when trained graders review conjunctival photographs compared to when they perform conjunctival examinations in the field. METHODS: Three trained trachoma graders each performed an independent examination of the everted right tarsal conjunctiva of 269 children aged 0-9 years, and then reviewed photographs of these same conjunctivae in a random order. For each eye, the grader documented the presence or absence of follicular trachoma (TF) and intense trachomatous inflammation (TI) according to the WHO simplified grading system. RESULTS: Inter-rater agreement for the grade of TF was significantly higher in the field (kappa coefficient, κ, 0.73, 95% confidence interval, CI 0.67-0.80) than by photographic review (κ = 0.55, 95% CI 0.49-0.63; difference in κ between field grading and photo grading 0.18, 95% CI 0.09-0.26). When field and photographic grades were each assessed as the consensus grade from the three graders, agreement between in-field and photographic graders was high for TF (κ = 0.75, 95% CI 0.68-0.84). CONCLUSIONS: In an area with hyperendemic trachoma, inter-rater agreement was lower for photographic assessment of trachoma than for in-field assessment. However, the trachoma grade reached by a consensus of photographic graders agreed well with the grade given by a consensus of in-field graders.

Prevalence of Trachoma in Jigawa State, Northwestern Nigeria.

PURPOSE: To determine the magnitude of trachoma and the prevalent forms of the disease, and to provide baseline data for the establishment of a trachoma control program in Jigawa State, northwestern Nigeria. METHODS: A population-based cross-sectional survey was conducted in Jigawa State in May 2007 using a 2-stage cluster random sampling technique to select 4598 persons from 40 villages based on probability proportional to size. All participants were examined using a penlight and a 2.5 × binocular loupe for signs of trachoma, and graded using the World Health Organization (WHO) simplified grading system. RESULTS: A total of 4598 people were seen with 99.96% coverage. Of these, 2460 (53.5%) were female and 2138 (46.5%) were male. Mean age was 21.6 years ( ± 19.8 years). The prevalence of follicular trachoma in children aged ≤9 years was 20.5% (95% confidence interval, CI, 18.7-22.4%) with no difference between the sexes. The prevalence of trichiasis in adults aged ≥15 years was 5%, and the prevalence was higher in females than males (odds ratio 2.60, 95% CI 2.06-3.28; p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Trachoma is a major problem in Jigawa State; there is a need to train trichiasis surgeons and empower them to carry out community-based surgery. District-level prevalence of trachoma needs to be determined to know which aspects of the WHO SAFE strategy (surgery, antibiotics, facial cleanliness and environmental improvements) need to be emphasized in each district.

Epidemiologia do tracoma no nordeste brasileiro: estudo de caso no município de Russas, estado do Ceará / Epidemiology of trachoma in northeastern brazil: a case study in Russas, state of Ceará

O tracoma é uma afecção ocular ocasionada pelos sorotipos A, B, Ba e C de Chlamydiatrachomatis e acomete principalmente crianças até os 10 anos. Caracterizado principalmentepela inflamação da conjuntiva, pode levar à cicatrização, à opacificação corneana e até àcegueira, na idade adulta. Este agravo é endêmico em diversas partes do nordeste brasileiro,porém informações robustas acerca deste fato são poucas. Diversos inquéritos tem sido feitosno país, sobretudo no contexto do Sistema Único de Saúde / Estratégia de Saúde da Família.Neste estudo, a epidemiologia do tracoma no município de Russas (CE) foi estudada por meiode um programa de busca ativa em comunidades (localidades), nos anos de 2010, 2012 e2013. O tracoma foi investigado através de exames oculares realizados por agentes deendemias treinados, utilizando lupas com 2,5x de aumento, em visitas domiciliares. Napopulação de estudo, detectou-se tracoma em 426 (14,1 por cento) de 3018 habitantes examinados.A doença foi mais frequente em mulheres (254/1534 [16.6 por cento]) do que em homens (172/1484[11,6 por cento]), p < 0.001. Foi detectada maior frequência do tracoma em crianças menores de 10anos e 50% dos casos identificados foram em indivíduos menores de 15 anos. A prevalênciada doença foi maior em moradores de casas de barro (Odds ratio [OR] = 1.48; 95 por cento Intervalode Confiança [IC] =1.07 – 2,04; p =0.020) e que possuíam fogão a lenha no interior dodomicílio (OR = 1.83; 95 por cento IC = 1.49 – 2.25; p < 0.001)...

Trachoma is an eye disease, predominately affecting children under 10 years, caused by theserotypes A, B, Ba and C of Chlamydia trachomatis. Mainly characterized by conjunctivitis, itcan lead to scarring, corneal opacification and even blindness in adulthood. Although thisdisease is endemic in various areas of northeastern Brazil and several studies have beenundertaken, especially in the context of the Family Health Strategy of the Brazilian UnifiedHealth System, comprehensive information is limited. Through an active search program, theepidemiology of trachoma in 2010, 2012 and 2013 in communities of the municipality ofRussas, Ceará, Brazil was studied. Endemic disease agents searched for cases of trachomaby conducting eye examinations during home-visits using a 2.5x loupe. Trachoma was foundin 426 (14.1 percent) of the 3,018 examined residents. The disease was more frequent in women(254/1534, 16.6 percent) than men (172/1484, 11.6 percent, p-value < 0.001). Children under 10 years hadthe highest prevalence of trachoma and 50 percent of the cases were among children under 15years. Residents of homes constructed from adobe (OR= 1.48; 95 percent CI: 7.1-2.04; p-value=0.020) and those with wood-burning stoves (OR=1.83; 95 percent CI: 1.49 to 2.25; p-value < 0.001)had higher prevalence of disease. Of the 426 cases identified, 360 (85 percent ) were ofTrachomatous Inflammation- Follicular (TF) with 196 cases of TF found in both eyes, 90 casesin only the left and 74 in only the right eye. Sixteen patients (3.9 percent), of which one was a child,had Trachomatous Scarring (TS) only in the left eye...

Importance of including borderline cases in trachoma grader certification.

We assessed trachoma grading agreement among field graders using photographs that included the complete spectrum of disease and compared it with cases where there was consensus among experienced graders. Trained photographers took photographs of children's conjunctiva during a clinical trial in Ethiopia. We calculated κ-agreement statistics using a complete set of 60 cases and then recalculated the κ using a consensus set where cases were limited to those cases with agreement among experienced graders. When the complete set of 60 cases was used, agreement was moderate (κ = 0.61, 95% confidence interval [95% CI] = 0.56-0.67). When the consensus set was used, agreement improved significantly (κ = 0.75, 95% CI = 0.68-0.80). The κ of the consensus set was higher than the complete set by 0.14 (95% CI = 0.12-0.16) (P < 0.001). If testing sets remove difficult-to-grade cases, agreement in trachoma grading may be higher than actually seen in population-based trachoma surveys.

Reliability of trachoma clinical grading--assessing grading of marginal cases.

BACKGROUND: Clinical examination of trachoma is used to justify intervention in trachoma-endemic regions. Currently, field graders are certified by determining their concordance with experienced graders using the kappa statistic. Unfortunately, trachoma grading can be highly variable and there are cases where even expert graders disagree (borderline/marginal cases). Prior work has shown that inclusion of borderline cases tends to reduce apparent agreement, as measured by kappa. Here, we confirm those results and assess performance of trainees on these borderline cases by calculating their reliability error, a measure derived from the decomposition of the Brier score. METHODS AND FINDINGS: We trained 18 field graders using 200 conjunctival photographs from a community-randomized trial in Niger and assessed inter-grader agreement using kappa as well as reliability error. Three experienced graders scored each case for the presence or absence of trachomatous inflammation-follicular (TF) and trachomatous inflammation-intense (TI). A consensus grade for each case was defined as the one given by a majority of experienced graders. We classified cases into a unanimous subset if all 3 experienced graders gave the same grade. For both TF and TI grades, the mean kappa for trainees was higher on the unanimous subset; inclusion of borderline cases reduced apparent agreement by 15.7% for TF and 12.4% for TI. When we assessed the breakdown of the reliability error, we found that our trainees tended to over-call TF grades and under-call TI grades, especially in borderline cases. CONCLUSIONS: The kappa statistic is widely used for certifying trachoma field graders. Exclusion of borderline cases, which even experienced graders disagree on, increases apparent agreement with the kappa statistic. Graders may agree less when exposed to the full spectrum of disease. Reliability error allows for the assessment of these borderline cases and can be used to refine an individual trainee's grading.

Prevalence of trachoma in a single community, 1975-2007.

BACKGROUND: To determine the change in the prevalence in active trachoma in children in a remote Aboriginal community over a 32-year period. DESIGN: Data used from two cross-sectional studies repeated in the same community 32 years apart. PARTICIPANTS OR SAMPLES: Children aged 5-13 years living in the community. METHODS: Thirty-five mm photographs of the everted upper lid taken in 1975 and digital photographs taken in 2007 were graded using a fine trachoma-grading scheme. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: The age-specific prevalence and severity of trachoma was compared at the two time points. RESULTS: Images were available from 82 children in 1975 and from 92 children in 2007. The overall prevalence of active trachoma (trachomatous inflammation follicular and or trachomatous inflammation intense) was 59% in 1975 and in 2007 was significantly lower at 23% (P<0.001). The overall severity grades of active trachoma had also decreased significantly for each sign from 1975 to 2007 (all P values from the rank-sum test were less than 0.001). However, in 2007, there were still some children with severe active trachoma and severe scarring still occurred. CONCLUSION: Although the prevalence and severity of active trachoma in children have decreased significantly over the last 30 years in this community, trachoma still remains a significant public health problem. One third of the children have active trachoma, a figure in excess of the threshold set as a public health problem by the World Health Organization.

Survey of Trachoma within school students in the state of Roraima, Brazil.

PURPOSE: Trachoma, a blinding conjunctivitis, is the result of repeated infection with Chlamydia trachomatis. There are no recent data for the state of Roraima, Brazil, where it was thought that trachoma no longer existed. These data are derived from school children sampled in this state, with additional data collected from the contacts of children with trachoma. DESIGN: A population-based cross-sectional study with random sampling of students in grades 1 through 4 of all public schools within municipalities where the human development index was less than the national average in 2003. The sample was stratified according to population size. PARTICIPANTS: A sample size of 7200 was determined and a total of 6986 (93%) students were examined, along with an additional 2152 contacts. METHODS: All students were examined for trachoma according to World Health Organization criteria. Demographic data and contact information also was collected. The family and school contacts of students with trachoma then were located and examined. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Prevalence and grade of trachoma, age, gender, race, and municipality location. RESULTS: The overall prevalence of trachoma was 4.5% (95% confidence interval [CI], 3.7%-5.3%), but there were municipalities within the state where the prevalence of inflammatory trachoma was more than 10%. The prevalence was greater in rural areas (4.9%; 95% CI, 3.7%-6.0%) compared with urban areas (3.9%; 95% CI, 2.9%-4.9%). Living in indigenous communities was associated with trachoma (odds ratio, 1.6; 95% CI, 0.9-2.6). An additional 2152 contacts were examined, and the overall trachoma prevalence was 9.3% (95% CI, 8.1-10.5). CONCLUSIONS: Trachoma continues to exist in Roraima, Brazil, where there are municipalities with a significant prevalence of disease. The indigenous population is highly mobile, crossing state and international borders, raising the possibility of trachoma in neighboring countries. Trachoma prevalence among the contacts of students with trachoma was higher than the school population, highlighting the importance of contact tracing. FINANCIAL DISCLOSURE(S): The author(s) have no proprietary or commercial interest in any materials discussed in this article.

In vivo confocal microscopy of trachoma in relation to normal tarsal conjunctiva.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the in vivo confocal microscopy (IVCM) appearances of the tarsal conjunctiva in trachoma compared with the appearance of healthy conjunctiva and to develop grading systems for IVCM examination of the tarsal conjunctiva for use in future studies on trachoma and other conjunctival diseases. DESIGN: Prospective observational study. PARTICIPANTS: In vivo confocal microscopy examination was performed on 302 clinically normal adults, 16 clinically normal children, 750 adults with trachomatous conjunctival scarring, and 25 children with active trachoma. METHODS: Clinical evaluation was performed with ×2.5 loupes, and IVCM examination of the upper tarsal conjunctiva was carried out with a Heidelberg Retina Tomograph 3 with the Rostock Cornea Module (Heidelberg Engineering GmbH, Dossenheim, Germany). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: In vivo confocal microscopy images were analyzed for cellular and tissue changes associated with trachomatous inflammation and scarring compared with healthy subjects. RESULTS: Trachomatous subjects with follicular and papillary inflammation had an increased inflammatory cellular infiltrate, including dendritiform cells, discrete follicular and papillary structures, and cystic lacunae suggestive of tissue edema. Trachomatous conjunctival scarring was seen with IVCM as organization of the subepithelial connective tissue into bands/sheets. Grading systems for inflammatory changes and scarring were developed, with the system for scarring showing good interobserver agreement with an intraclass coefficient of 0.88. CONCLUSIONS: In vivo confocal microscopy provides a powerful tool for examining the ocular surface. Numerous cellular and tissue changes were observed in subjects with trachoma, the first time IVCM has been applied to this disease. These changes both complement and add to previous histologic analyses. In vivo confocal microscopy promises to provide new insights into the pathogenesis of trachoma and other conjunctival diseases.

[Trachoma: epidemiologic study in students in Alagoas State--Brazil]. / Tracoma: estudo epidemiológico de escolares em Alagoas--Brasil.

PURPOSE: To define the detection rate of trachoma in scholars from Alagoas--Brazil. METHODS: The sample included 6,424 children and adolescents. Scholar's clinical evaluation was performed by medical students under the supervision of professors of the Department of Ophthalmology, according to the World Health Organization guidelines. The clinical evaluation was characterized by eyelashes, eyelids, conjunctiva and cornea examination in both eyes. The scholars were cataloged and data of name, sex, age, clinical forms diagnosis and city were recorded. Regarding the age, the students were divided into three groups: group A (<10 years old), group B (10-14 years old) and group C (>14 years old). RESULTS: The detection rate of trachoma was 4.5%. From 3,280 male scholars, 161 (4.9%) cases were confirmed; from 3,144 female scholars, 131 (4.2%) cases were considered confirmed. From the total scholars in group A, B and C; respectively 175 (5.3%), 113 (8.0%) and 4 (1.6%) were considered confirmed cases. CONCLUSION: In this region, it seems that trachoma has not been eradicated and, therefore, must remain as a differential diagnosis of chronic follicular conjunctivitis in children and adolescents from this region.

Tracoma: estudo epidemiológico de escolares em Alagoas - Brasil / Trachoma: epidemiologic study of scholars from Alagoas State - Brazil

OBJETIVOS: Definir a taxa de detecção de tracoma em escolares do Estado de Alagoas - Brasil. MÉTODOS: A amostra foi constituída de 6.424 crianças e adolescentes. A avaliação clínica dos escolares foi realizada por graduandos da Faculdade de Medicina sob supervisão de professores do Departamento de Oftalmologia, seguindo os critérios da Organização Mundial de Saúde. A avaliação clínica foi caracterizada por exame dos cílios, das pálpebras, da conjuntiva e da córnea de ambos os olhos. Os estudantes foram catalogados, anotando-se nome, sexo, idade, diagnóstico da forma clínica e município. Quanto à idade, os escolares foram divididos em três grupos: grupo A (<10 anos), grupo B (10-14 anos) e grupo C (>14 anos). RESULTADOS: A taxa de detecção de tracoma foi de 4,5 por cento. Dos 3.280 estudantes do sexo masculino, 161 (4,9 por cento) casos foram considerados confirmados, e dos 3.144 estudantes do sexo feminino, 131 (4,2 por cento) casos foram considerados confirmados. Do total de escolares do grupo A, B e C, respectivamente 175 (5,3 por cento), 113 (8,0 por cento) e 4 (1,6 por cento), foram considerados casos confirmados. CONCLUSÃO: Nesta região, o tracoma parece não ter sido erradicado e, portanto, deve permanecer como diagnóstico diferencial de conjuntivite folicular crônica em crianças e adolescentes advindos dela.

PURPOSE: To define the detection rate of trachoma in scholars from Alagoas - Brazil. METHODS: The sample included 6,424 children and adolescents. Scholar's clinical evaluation was performed by medical students under the supervision of professors of the Department of Ophthalmology, according to the World Health Organization guidelines. The clinical evaluation was characterized by eyelashes, eyelids, conjunctiva and cornea examination in both eyes. The scholars were cataloged and data of name, sex, age, clinical forms diagnosis and city were recorded. Regarding the age, the students were divided into three groups: group A (<10 years old), group B (10-14 years old) and group C (>14 years old). RESULTS: The detection rate of trachoma was 4.5 percent. From 3,280 male scholars, 161 (4.9 percent) cases were confirmed; from 3,144 female scholars, 131 (4.2 percent) cases were considered confirmed. From the total scholars in group A, B and C; respectively 175 (5.3 percent), 113 (8.0 percent) and 4 (1.6 percent) were considered confirmed cases. CONCLUSION: In this region, it seems that trachoma has not been eradicated and, therefore, must remain as a differential diagnosis of chronic follicular conjunctivitis in children and adolescents from this region.

Trachoma and ocular Chlamydia trachomatis rates in children in trachoma-endemic communities enrolled for at least three years in the Tanzania National Trachoma Control Programme.

Trachoma, a blinding eye disease caused by repeated and prolonged infection with Chlamydia trachomatis, is a significant public health problem for sub-Saharan Africa. Tanzania has had a National Trachoma Task Force since 1999, working on trachoma control in endemic districts. The objective of this study was twofold: first, to determine the current status of infection and clinical trachoma in these districts in Tanzania, and second, to determine if a combination of clinical signs could be used as a surrogate for infection. We conducted a survey for trachoma and infection with C. trachomatis in 75 villages in eight districts of Kongwa, Kilosa, Mpwapwa, Bahi, Kondoa, Manyoni, Monduli and Iramba in Tanzania, which have previously been shown to be endemic. In each village, a random sample of households, and of children within households, was taken for examination. Trachoma was graded using the World Health Organization system, which we expanded, and a swab taken to determine presence of infection. The rates of trachoma ranged from 0% in Iramba District to 15.17% in Monduli District, with large variation in villages within districts. Infection rates were generally lower than trachoma rates, as expected, and most districts had villages with no infection. A combination of clinical signs of trachoma in children, when absent, showed very high specificity for identifying villages with no infection. We conclude that these signs might be useful for monitoring absence of infection in villages, and that districts with trachoma prevalence between 10% and 15% should have village level rapid surveys to avoid unnecessary mass treatment.

Clinical examination and laboratory tests for estimation of trachoma prevalence in a remote setting: what are they really telling us?

Worldwide, an estimated 84 million people have active trachoma and 7.6 million people have trachomatous trichiasis. WHO's SAFE strategy is an effective tool in the worldwide effort to eliminate blinding trachoma, but its institution and monitoring requires a simple, reliable, and cost-effective method to detect disease. To date, clinical examination has provided the main method of diagnosis. Detection of Chlamydia trachomatis with nucleic acid amplification tests does not always correlate well with clinical findings, which has prompted the suggestion that these methods should replace clinical examination. However, a review of the research carried out in animals and human beings suggests the relation between laboratory tests and clinical examination is due to the kinetics of trachoma and not to an inherent problem in either detection system. Given the increased difficulties of using laboratory tests in parts of the world where trachoma is endemic, we should not abandon clinical grading as a tool to assess the need for, and the effectiveness of, trachoma intervention programmes.

Modified grading system for upper eyelid trachomatous trichiasis.

AIM: This study was conducted to determine the level of inter-observer agreement in the modified grading scheme for trichiasis of the upper eyelid. METHODS: A grading system that covers the entire spectrum of trachomatous trichiasis, extending from the simple to the severe forms, was initially developed by the first and second authors and field-tested. The grading scheme recognizes three levels of severity, based on deviation of the lid margin (TT1, TT2 and TT3); and four anatomical locations indicating where the eyelashes touch the globe in TT1 (nasal, central, temporal, or combined). The grading of trichiasis patients was then conducted on the basis of the modified grading scheme. RESULTS: The inter-observer agreement between the grades of simple trichiasis (TT1) and entropion (TT2) using Cronbach's alpha was 0.84, and the agreement within each sub-grade was 0.86. The weighted Kappa value was 0.68 (95% CI 0.57-0.79) for the main grades and 0.49 (95% CI 0.23-0.79) for the sub-grades. CONCLUSIONS: The inter-observer agreement was very reliable and could easily be attained by all levels of ophthalmic professionals. As the grading follows the natural progression of trichiasis from the simple to the severe forms in relation to the anatomical site involved, it helps to determine the degree of correction and how far to extend the surgical incision.

Risk factors for trachoma: 6-year follow-up of children aged 1 and 2 years.

The authors investigated the long-term stability of risk factors in predicting the presence of active trachoma and severe inflammatory trachoma in 176 children in Kongwa, Tanzania, who were aged 1 and 2 years in 1989 and were available for follow-up in 1995. Familial cattle ownership, living more than 2 hours away from a water source, and facial cleanliness at both time points were associated with the presence of active trachoma at both time points (odds ratio (OR) = 2.58, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.15, 5.79; OR = 3.07, 95% CI: 1.23, 7.64; and OR = 0.52, 95% CI: 0.26, 1.03, respectively). An association of familial cattle ownership with facial cleanliness and water accessibility was observed. Having a clean face at both time points was associated with lower odds of active trachoma at both time points for children in non-cattle-herding families (OR = 0.40, 95% CI: 0.18, 0.87). Living more than 2 hours away from a water source at both time points increased the odds of active trachoma at both time points in children of cattle-herding families (OR = 8.00, 95% CI: 1.99, 32.10). Noticeably, severe inflammatory trachoma at baseline predicted mortality in children from villages in which trachoma was less common (OR = 3.75, 95% CI: 1.09, 12.98). The results suggest that risk factor reduction could diminish persistent disease.

Reduction of trachoma in a sub-Saharan village in absence of a disease control programme.

BACKGROUND: Trachoma is a leading cause of blindness in the developing world and is most prevalent among people who live in poor rural communities in arid locations. METHODS: We analysed the results of surveys of trachoma prevalence in Marakissa, a rural village in The Gambia. These surveys were undertaken in 1959, by the Medical Research Council, and in 1987 and 1996 by the Gambian National Eye Care Programme. FINDINGS: During this 37-year period, the prevalence of active inflammatory trachoma among children aged 0-9 years fell from 65.7 cases per 100 children in 1959 to 2.4 cases per 100 children in 1996. The prevalence also fell dramatically among people of 10-19 years (52.5 to 1.4 per 100) and among people of 20 years and older (36.7 to 0 cases per 100). INTERPRETATION: The dramatic fall in disease occurrence was paralleled by improvements in sanitation, water supply, education, and access to health care in the village. Of particular importance is that the decline in trachoma occurred without any trachoma-specific intervention.

PIP: Trachoma, an eye infection caused by Chlamydia trachomatis, is a leading cause of blindness in developing countries. Risk factors include lack of facial cleanliness, poor access to water supplies, lack of latrines, and a large number of flies. Its prevalence is disproportionately high among women and children in poor rural communities. To assess trends in the prevalence of active inflammatory trachoma in Marakissa, a typical small rural village in the Gambia divided into family compounds, the results of eye examinations conducted in 1959, 1987, and 1996 were compared. Among children under 10 years of age, the prevalence of active trachoma infection dropped from 65.7 cases per 100 in 1959 to 2.4 per 100 in 1996. Declines were also recorded among children 10-19 years old (from 52.5 to 1.4/100) and among those 20 years and older (from 36.7 to 0 cases/100). This dramatic fall, which occurred without any specific trachoma control programs in the area, is presumed attributable to both improvements in socioeconomic standards and the training of village health workers and traditional birth attendants in eye care.