Fenugreek seed mucilage-based active edible films for extending fresh fruit shelf life: Antimicrobial and physicochemical properties.

Trigonella foenum-graecum, known as fenugreek, belongs to the leguminous family of wild growth in Western Asia, Europe, the Mediterranean, and Asia; its ripe seeds contain a pool of bioactive substances with great potential in the food industry and medicine. In this study, fenugreek seed mucilage (FSM) was extracted and characterized in its structural properties by X-ray diffraction, nuclear magnetic resonance, and high-performance liquid chromatography. Then, the applicability of FSM as an antimicrobial agent was demonstrated via the development of novel, active, edible FSM-based biofilms containing carboxymethyl cellulose and rosemary essential oil (REO). Incorporating REO in the biofilms brought about specific changes in Fourier-transform infrared spectra, affecting thermal degradation behavior. Scanning electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy morphography showed an even distribution of REO and smoother surfaces in the loaded films. Besides, the solubility tests evidenced a reduction in water solubility with increasing REO concentration from 1 to 3 wt%. The biological assay evidenced the antimicrobial activity of REO-loaded biofilms against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. Finally, whole apples were dip-coated with FSM-based solutions to showcase future edible systems. The REO-loaded biofilms extended the shelf life of apples to 30 days, demonstrating their potential for sustainable and active coatings.

Unveiling the potential of A. fabrum and γ-aminobutyric acid for mitigation of nickel toxicity in fenugreek.

Nickel (Ni) is a heavy metal that adversely affects the growth of different crops by inducing oxidative stress and nutrient imbalance. The role of rhizobacteria (RB) is vital to resolve this issue. They can promote root growth and facilitate the uptake of water and nutrients, resulting in better crop growth. On the other hand, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) can maintain the osmotic balance and scavenge the reactive oxygen species under stress conditions. However, the combined effect of GABA and RB has not been thoroughly explored to alleviate Ni toxicity, especially in fenugreek plants. Therefore, in the current pot study, four treatments, i.e., control, A. fabrum (RB), 0.40 mM GABA, and 0.40 mM GABA + RB, were applied under 0Ni and 80 mg Ni/kg soil (80Ni) stress. Results showed that RB + 0.40 mM GABA caused significant improvements in shoot length (~ 13%), shoot fresh weight (~ 47%), shoot dry weight (~ 47%), root length (~ 13%), root fresh weight (~ 60%), and root dry weight (~ 15%) over control under 80 Ni toxicity. A significant enhancement in total chlorophyll (~ 14%), photosynthetic rate (~ 17%), stomatal CO2 concentration (~ 19%), leaves and roots N (~ 10 and ~ 37%), P (~ 18 and ~ 7%) and K (~ 11 and ~ 30%) concentrations, while a decrease in Ni (~ 83 and ~ 49%) concentration also confirmed the effectiveness of RB + 0.40 mM GABA than control under 80Ni. In conclusion, fabrum + 0.40 mM GABA can potentially alleviate the Ni toxicity in fenugreek plants. The implications of these findings extend to agricultural practices, environmental remediation efforts, nutritional security, and ecological impact. Further research is recommended to elucidate the underlying mechanisms, assess long-term effects, and determine the practical feasibility of using A. fabrum + 0.40GABA to improve growth in different crops under Ni toxicity.

Variability in genome size of Trigonella foenum-graecum, Trigonella corniculata and Trigonella caerulea as estimated by flow cytometry indicates complex evolutionary history of fenugreek.

BACKGROUND: The determination of genome size is a fundamental step which provides a basis to initiate studies aimed at deciphering the genetic similarity of a species and to carry out other genomics based investigations. Fenugreek (Trigonella spp.) is an important spice crop which has numerous health promoting phytochemicals. Many species within this genus are known for their various health benefits owing to the presence of a wide diversity of important phytochemicals like diosgenin, trigonelline, fenugreekine, galactomannan, 4-hydroxy isoleucine, etc. It is a multipurpose crop being cultivated for food, animal feed and industrial purposes. Despite its importance, research on the genomics aspect of fenugreek remains scant. In the absence of sufficient genomic information, crop improvement in fenugreek is severely lagging. METHODS AND RESULTS: Estimation of genome size of a species is the preliminary step for initiation of any genomic studies and therefore in the present study we have estimated the genome size for fenugreek. Here, we have determined the genome sizes of three different Trigonella spp. namely T. foenum-graecum, T. corniculata and T. caerulea through flow cytometry (FC). The 2 C DNA content values were found to be 6.05 pg (T. foenum-graecum), 1.83 pg (T. corniculata) and 1.96 pg (T. caerulea). The genome size of T. foenum-graecum is approximately three times the genome size of T. corniculata and T. caerulea. This variation in genome size of more than three-fold indicates the level of genetic divergence among the three species, though within the same genus. CONCLUSIONS: The differences observed in the genome sizes of the three species provide conclusive evidence of their genetic divergence. Additionally, the information about the genome size would provide an impetus to the structural and functional genomics-based research in this crop.

Interactions between Bacillus thuringiensis and selected plant extracts for sustainable management of Phthorimaea absoluta.

Phthorimaea absoluta is a global constraint to tomato production and can cause up to 100% yield loss. Farmers heavily rely on synthetic pesticides to manage this pest. However, these pesticides are detrimental to human, animal, and environmental health. Therefore, exploring eco-friendly, sustainable Integrated Pest Management approaches, including biopesticides as potential alternatives, is of paramount importance. In this context, the present study (i) evaluated the efficacy of 10 Bacillus thuringiensis isolates, neem, garlic, and fenugreek; (ii) assessed the interactions between the most potent plant extracts and B. thuringiensis isolates, and (iii) evaluated the gut microbial diversity due to the treatments for the development of novel formulations against P. absoluta. Neem recorded the highest mortality of 93.79 ± 3.12% with an LT50 value of 1.21 ± 0.24 days, Bt HD263 induced 91.3 ± 3.68% mortality with LT50 of 2.63 ± 0.11 days, compared to both Bt 43 and fenugreek that caused < 50% mortality. Larval mortality was further enhanced to 99 ± 1.04% when Bt HD263 and neem were combined. Furthermore, the microbiome analyses showed that Klebsiella, Escherichia and Enterobacter had the highest abundance in all treatments with Klebsiella being the most abundant. In addition, a shift in the abundance of the bacterial genera due to the treatments was observed. Our findings showed that neem, garlic, and Bt HD263 could effectively control P. absoluta and be integrated into IPM programs after validation by field efficacy trials.

Synthesis of fenugreek gum-based metal-organic framework (FG/Zr-AIPA MOF) composite beads for sequestration of heavy metal ions from aqueous solution.

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are a prominent class of materials due to their large surface area and customized structures. This gives them specificity and high adsorption capacity while they lack mechanical strength and reusability. Integrating MOFs with polysaccharide matrix may retain MOF characteristics along with imparting structural integrity. In the present study, zirconium MOF-based fenugreek composite (FG/Zr-AIPA) beads were synthesised by a single droplet method and utilised for removal of Cr(VI), Pb(II) and Fe(III) from aqueous solution. The structure, morphology and composition of beads were evaluated by FTIR, XRD, TGA, BET, FESEM, EDX, XPS and zeta potential analysis. Adsorption isotherm, kinetics and thermodynamics were studied for Cr(VI), Pb(II) and Fe(III) adsorption. Adsorption kinetics and isotherm study revealed that all the metal ions were adsorbed through a monolayer chemisorption process. The maximum adsorption capacity was 344.43, 270.02 and 223.21 mg g-1 for Cr(VI), Pb(II) and Fe(III), respectively, based on the Langmuir isotherm study. The thermodynamics study revealed that the interaction between the metal ions and the composite beads was spontaneous and endothermic. The FG/Zr-AIPA composite beads exhibited good reusability for the removal of Cr(VI), Pb(II) and Fe(III). The results open new possibilities for the preparation of polysaccharide MOF-based composite beads which exhibit substantial potential for water treatment applications.

Transcriptomic data reveals the dynamics of terpenoids biosynthetic pathway of fenugreek.

Medicinal plants are rich sources for treating various diseases due their bioactive secondary metabolites. Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) is one of the medicinal plants traditionally used in human nutrition and medicine which contains an active substance, called diosgenin, with anticancer properties. Biosynthesis of this important anticancer compound in fenugreek can be enhanced using eliciting agents which involves in manipulation of metabolite and biochemical pathways stimulating defense responses. Methyl jasmonate elicitor was used to increase diosgenin biosynthesis in fenugreek plants. However, the molecular mechanism and gene expression profiles underlying diosgening accumulation remain unexplored. In the current study we performed an extensive analysis of publicly available RNA-sequencing datasets to elucidate the biosynthesis and expression profile of fenugreek plants treated with methyl jasmonate. For this purpose, seven read datasets of methyl jasmonate treated plants were obtained that were covering several post-treatment time points (6-120 h). Transcriptomics analysis revealed upregulation of several key genes involved in diosgenein biosynthetic pathway including Squalene synthase (SQS) as the first committed step in diosgenin biosynthesis as well as Squalene Epoxidase (SEP) and Cycloartenol Synthase (CAS) upon methyl jasmonate application. Bioinformatics analysis, including gene ontology enrichment and pathway analysis, further supported the involvement of these genes in diosgenin biosynthesis. The bioinformatics analysis led to a comprehensive validation, with expression profiling across three different fenugreek populations treated with the same methyl jasmonate application. Initially, key genes like SQS, SEP, and CAS showed upregulation, followed by later upregulation of Δ24, suggesting dynamic pathway regulation. Real-time PCR confirmed consistent upregulation of SQS and SEP, peaking at 72 h. Additionally, candidate genes Δ24 and SMT1 highlighted roles in directing metabolic flux towards diosgenin biosynthesis. This integrated approach validates the bioinformatics findings and elucidates fenugreek's molecular response to methyl jasmonate elicitation, offering insights for enhancing diosgenin yield. The assembled transcripts and gene expression profiles are deposited in the Zenodo open repository at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8155183 .

Fenugreek extract improves diabetes-induced endothelial dysfunction via the arginase 1 pathway.

Endothelial dysfunction (ED) is an initiating trigger and key factor in vascular complications, leading to disability and mortality in individuals with diabetes. The research concerning therapeutic interventions for ED has gained considerable interest. Fenugreek, a commonly used edible plant in dietary consumption, has attracted significant attention due to its management of diabetes and its associated complications. The research presented in this study examines the potential therapeutic benefits of fenugreek in treating ED and investigates the underlying mechanism associated with its effects. The analysis on fenugreek was performed using 70% ethanol extract, and its chemical composition was analyzed using ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF/MS). In total, we identified 49 compounds present in the fenugreek extract. These compounds encompass flavonoids, saponins, and phospholipids. Then, the models of ED in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice and high glucose-induced isolated rat aortas were established for research. Through vascular function testing, it was observed that fenugreek extract effectively improved ED induced by diabetes or high glucose. By analyzing the protein expression of arginase 1 (Arg1), Arg activity, Arg1 immunohistochemistry, nitric oxide (NO) level, and the protein expression of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK), and p-p38 MAPK in aortas, this study revealed that the potential mechanism of fenugreek extract in anti-ED involves the downregulation of Arg1, leading to enhanced NO production. Furthermore, analysis of serum exosomes carrying Arg activity indicates that fenugreek may decrease the activity of Arg transported by serum exosomes, potentially preventing the increase in Arg levels triggered by the uptake of serum exosomes by vascular endothelial cells. In general, this investigation offers valuable observations regarding the curative impact of fenugreek extract on anti-ED in diabetes, revealing the involvement of the Arg1 pathway in its mechanism.

Development of 3D printed k-carrageenan-based gummy candies modified by fenugreek gum: Correlating 3D printing performance with sol-gel transition.

Temperature-responsive inks were formulated using k-carrageenan, fenugreek gum (FG), rose extracts, and sugar, of which the first two were used as the gelling agents. The interactions among components in these mixed ink formulations were investigated. Sol-gel transition and rheological properties of these inks were also correlated with extrusion, shape formation, and self (shape)-supporting aspects of 3D printing. Results indicated that incorporating FG increased inks' gelation temperature from 39.7 °C to 44.7-49.6 °C, affecting the selection of printing temperature (e.g., 0 % FG: 40 °C, 0.15 % FG: 45 °C, 0.3 % FG-0.6 % FG: 50 °C). Inks in solution states with lower viscosity (<5 Pa·s) were amenable to ensure their smooth extrusion through the tip of the printing nozzle. A shorter sol-gel transition time (approximately 100 s) during the shape formation stage facilitated the solidification of inks after extrusion. The addition of FG significantly (p<0.05) improved the mechanical properties (elastic modulus, hardness, etc.) of the printed models, which facilitated their self-supporting behavior. Low field nuclear magnetic resonance indicated that the inclusion of FG progressively restricted water mobility, consequently reducing the water syneresis rate of the mixed inks by 0.86 %-3.6 %. FG enhanced hydrogen bonding interactions among the components of these mixed inks, and helped to form a denser network.

Metabolomic and Transcriptomic Analyses Reveal the Molecular Mechanism Underlying the Massive Accumulation of Secondary Metabolites in Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) Seeds.

Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) is a traditional medicinal plant for treating human diseases that is widely cultivated in many countries. However, the component and related metabolic pathways are still unclear. To understand the changes in expression of the component and related genes during seed development, this study employed metabolomic and transcriptomic analyses and integrative analysis to explore the metabolites and pathways involved in the growth of fenugreek. The antifungal activity of the fenugreek seeds was also analyzed. A total of 9499 metabolites were identified in the positive ion mode, and 8043 metabolites were identified in the negative ion mode. Among them, the main components were fatty acyls, prenol lipids, steroids, steroid derivatives, flavonoids, and isoflavonoids. Among these enriched pathways, the top 20 pathways were "flavone and flavonol biosynthesis", "isoflavonoid biosynthesis", and "flavonoid biosynthesis". 3,7-Di-O-methylquercetin, flavonoids, pseudobaptigenin, isoflavonoids, methylecgonine, alkaloids, and derivatives were the most significantly upregulated metabolites. There were 38,137 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) identified via transcriptomic analysis. According to the KEGG pathway enrichment analysis, 147 DEGs were significantly enriched in "flavonoid biosynthesis". Ten DEGs of the six key enzymes were found to be involved in three pathways related to flavonoid and alkaloid synthesis in fenugreek. The antifungal activity test revealed the inhibitory effect of the ethanol extract of fenugreek seeds on Alternaria tenuissima (Kunze)Wiltshire and Magnaporthe oryzae. These findings further prove that the use of botanical pesticides in fenugreek fruit has research value.

Differential responses of two fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) landraces pretreated with melatonin to prolonged drought stress and subsequent recovery.

BACKGROUND: Drought impairs growth, disturbs photosynthesis, and induces senescence in plants, which results in crop productivity reduction and ultimately jeopardizes human food security. The objective of this study was to determine major parameters associated with drought tolerance and recovery ability of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.), by examining differential biochemical and phenological responses and underlying enzyme activities as well as melatonin roles during drought stress and re-watering for two contrasting landraces. Moreover, the relative expression of three key genes involved in the biosynthesis pathway of diosgenin, including SQS, CAS, and BG, was investigated. RESULTS: Depending on the conditions, drought stress enhanced the activity of antioxidant enzymes and the osmoregulating compounds, non-enzymatic antioxidants, hydrogen peroxide content, and lipid peroxidation levels in most cases. Severe drought stress accelerated flowering time in Shushtar landrace (SHR) but had no significant effects on Varamin (VR). Pretreatment with melatonin delayed flowering time in SHR and caused high drought resistance in this landrace. Furthermore, melatonin significantly enhanced drought adaptability in VR by improving plant recovery ability. DISCUSSION: Based on our results plants' responses to drought stress and melatonin pretreatment were completely landrace-specific. Drought stress caused an increase in the relative expression of CAS gene and ultimately the accumulation of steroidal saponins in SHR. Melatonin compensated for the decrease in biomass production due to drought stress and finally increased steroidal saponins performance in SHR. Our study showed that melatonin can improve drought stress and recovery in fenugreek, but different factors such as genotype, melatonin concentration, and plant age should be considered.

Embracing nutritional, physical, pasting, textural, sensory and phenolic profile of functional muffins prepared by partial incorporation of lyophilized wheatgrass, fenugreek and basil microgreens juice powder.

BACKGROUND: Muffins are delightful baked food products that have earned a prominent place in the daily diet of a majority of people around the world. The incorporation of microgreens juice powder (MJP) into muffins boosts their nutritional value. The influence of the incorporation of wheatgrass, fenugreek and basil MJP at 1.5% and 3.0% levels on the nutritional composition, physical properties, pasting, sensory, textural and phenolic profile of functional muffins was evaluated. RESULTS: The results indicated a significant increase in the protein content, ash content, dietary fiber and total phenolic content of MJP incorporated muffins. The incorporation of MJP to the muffins led to a gradual reduction in the L*, a* and b* values. Baking characteristic such as bake loss decreased significantly as a result of MJP incorporation. Furthermore, the incorporation of various MJPs resulted in a significant decrease in the peak viscosity of the flour-MJP blends. Regarding texture, the hardness and chewiness of the muffins increased progressively with an increase in the level of MJP incorporation. The highest hardness (10.15 N) and chewiness (24.45 mJ) were noted for 3% fenugreek MJP incorporated muffins (FK 3.0). The sensory score of MJP incorporated muffins was acceptable and satisfactory. Additionally, 3% basil MJP incorporated muffins (BL 3.0) marked the dominant presence of majority of the detected phenolic acids such as ferulic acid, sinapic acid, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, quercetin, cinnamic acid, isothymosin and rosamarinic acid. The highest concentration of p-coumaric acid (11.95 mg kg-1), vanillic acid (26.07 mg kg-1) and kaempferol (8.04 mg kg-1) was recorded for FK 3.0 muffin. CONCLUSION: MJP incorporated muffins revealed the pool of phenolic acids and the reduced bake loss is of industrial interest. The present study concludes that wheatgrass, fenugreek and basil MJP can be incorporated by up to 3% into baked products as a source of functional ingredients for health benefits. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Current perspectives on fenugreek bioactive compounds and their potential impact on human health: A review of recent insights into functional foods and other high value applications.

Despite long-standing uses in several food and medicine traditions, the full potential of the leguminous crop fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) remains to be realized in the modern diet. Not only its seeds, which are highly prized for their culinary and medicinal properties, but also its leaves and stems abound in phytochemicals with high nutritional and health promoting attributes. Fenugreek dual food-medicine applications and reported metabolic activities include hypoglycemic, antihyperlipidemic, antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, antiatherogenic, antihypertensive, anticarcinogenic, immunomodulatory, and antinociceptive effects, with potential organ-protective effects at the cardiovascular, digestive, hepatic, endocrine, and central nervous system levels. Effectiveness in alleviating certain inflammatory skin conditions and dysfunctions of the reproductive system was also suggested. As a food ingredient, fenugreek can enhance the sensory, nutritional, and nutraceutical qualities of a wide variety of foods. Its high nutritive density can assist with the design of dietary items that meet the demand for novelty, variety, and healthier foods. Its seeds provide essential protective nutrients and other bioactive compounds, notably galactomannans, flavonoids, coumarins, saponins, alkaloids, and essential oils, whose health benefits, alone or in conjunction with other bioactives, are only beginning to be tapped into in the food industries. This review summarizes the current state of evidence on fenugreek potential for functional food development, focusing on the nutrients and non-nutrient bioactive components of interest from a dietary perspective, and their applications for enhancing the functional and nutraceutical value of foods and beverages. New developments, safety, clinical evidence, presumed mechanisms of action, and future perspectives are discussed. HIGHLIGHTS: Fenugreek seeds and leaves have long-standing uses in the food-medicine continuum. Fenugreek phytochemicals exert broad-spectrum biological and pharmacological activities. They show high preventive and nutraceutical potential against common chronic diseases. Current evidence supports multiple mechanisms of action mediated by distinct bioactives. Opportunities for fenugreek-based functional foods and nutraceuticals are expanding.

Effect of salinity stress and surfactant treatment with zinc and boron on morpho-physiological and biochemical indices of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum).

Micronutrient application has a crucial role in mitigating salinity stress in crop plants. This study was carried out to investigate the effect of zinc (Zn) and boron (B) as foliar applications on fenugreek growth and physiology under salt stress (0 and 120 mM). After 35 days of salt treatments, three levels of zinc (0, 50, and 100 ppm) and two levels of boron (0 and 2 ppm) were applied as a foliar application. Salinity significantly reduced root length (72.7%) and shoot length (33.9%), plant height (36%), leaf area (37%), root fresh weight (48%) and shoot fresh weight (75%), root dry weight (80%) and shoot dry weight (67%), photosynthetic pigments (78%), number of branches (50%), and seeds per pod (56%). Fenugreek's growth and physiology were improved by foliar spray of zinc and boron, which increased the length of the shoot (6%) and root length (2%), fresh root weight (18%), and dry root weight (8%), and chlorophyll a (1%), chlorophyll b (25%), total soluble protein content (3%), shoot calcium (9%) and potassium (5%) contents by significantly decreasing sodium ion (11%) content. Moreover, 100 ppm of Zn and 2 ppm of B enhanced the growth and physiology of fenugreek by reducing the effect of salt stress. Overall, boron and zinc foliar spray is suggested for improvement in fenugreek growth under salinity stress.

Impact of coriander (Coriandrum sativum), garlic (Allium sativum), fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) on zootechnical performance, carcass quality, blood metabolites and nutrient digestibility in broilers chickens.

The study investigated the impact of incorporating a specific herbal blend comprising coriander, garlic, and fenugreek (CGF) at various levels on the zootechnical performance, blood metabolites and nutrient digestibility in broiler chickens. The 42-day experiment involved 360 broilers (Cobb 500), organized into four distinct treatment groups. The dietary interventions included a control group consisting of a basal diet and the same diet was supplemented with CGF at rates of 1, 2, and 3%. Broilers receiving a 1% phytogenic mixture exhibited significantly increased live weight and carcass weight. Moreover, the digestibility of crude protein and crude fat significantly improved in broilers supplemented with a 1% phytogenic mixture. On the other hand, the digestibility of calcium and phosphorus showed a notable increase in broilers fed with a 3% phytogenic mixture. Regarding serum metabolites, the 1% phytogenic mixture group displayed significantly higher levels of high density lipoprotein and triglycerides. The supplementation of the broiler diet with a herbal mixture of coriander, fenugreek, and garlic at a 1% rate resulted in improved growth performance, carcass quality, nutrient digestion, and lipid profile.

Application of fenugreek in ruminant feed: implications for methane emissions and productivity.

Background: Human demand for meat and dairy products will increase as a result of economic development and population growth, and the farming of ruminants, such as cattle and sheep, will also increase. Methane (CH4) emission from the enteric fermentation of ruminant livestock is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions and a significant contributor to global warming. Meanwhile, growth performance is often limited and animals are more vulnerable to diseases in high-density, intensive farming, greatly reducing livestock productivity, so developing ways to reduce CH4 emissions and improve ruminant productivity has become a research hotspot. Studies have reported that fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) as feed additives have the potential to reduce ruminant methane and improve the productivity. However, systematic reviews of such studies are lacking. Methodology: In this review, databases of Google Scholar, Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus and Science Direct were used for the literature search. The initial keywords search was fenugreek or Trigonella foenum-graecum L. For more focused search, we added terms such as methane, rumen fermentation, growth, milk production and antioxidants. All were done for ruminants. The literature that conforms to the theme of this article is selected, summarized, and finally completed this article. Results: By regulating the rumen microbiome (suppressing protozoans, methanogenic bacteria, and fungi), fenugreek can lower CH4 emissions according to many in vitro anaerobic fermentation experiments. Fenugreek secondary metabolites (saponins and tannins) are responsible for this impact, but it is still unclear exactly how they work. Therefore, more long-term in vivo experiments are needed to verify its efficacy. Fenugreek is also rich in alkaloids, amino acids, flavonoids, saponins and phenolic acids. These compounds have been shown to have beneficial effects on ruminant growth, lactation, and total antioxidant capacity. Therefore, fenugreek has a great opportunity to develop into a new green feed additive. Conclusions: This review provides a summary of the effect of fenugreek and its bioactive compounds on rumen fermentation, CH4 emissions and production performance by ruminants. In addition, based on the available data, the possible biochemical pathway of fenugreek to reduce CH4 emissions in ruminants was described. Overall, the livestock feed industry has the opportunity to develop natural, environmentally-friendly feed additives based on fenugreek.

Optimization of fenugreek seed mucilage extraction for the synthesis of a novel bio-nano composite for efficient removal of cadmium ions from aqueous environments.

This research investigates the application of an innovative bio-nanocomposite, Fenugreek seed mucilage/silicon carbide (FSM/SiC), as an exceptionally effective adsorbent for eliminating cadmium ions from aqueous solutions. Optimization of fenugreek mucilage extraction involved ultrasonic methods, establishing ideal conditions with a solid-to-solvent ratio of 1:55, 50 °C temperature, 37 kHz frequency, 100 % power, and 30 min processing time. Comprehensive characterization through FTIR spectroscopy, XRD, imaging, DLS, and SEM confirmed the preservation of crucial adsorption-related characteristics. Enhanced adsorption efficiency was achieved by systematically adjusting pH, temperature, adsorbent concentration, pollutant concentration, and contact time, identifying optimal conditions at pH 6, 0.03 g adsorbent dosage, 35 min contact time, and 30 mg/L initial cadmium concentration at 30 °C. Adsorption kinetics followed a pseudo-second-order model, while the Langmuir isotherm fit suggested monolayered adsorption. Thermodynamic analysis indicated exothermic and spontaneous Cd2+ ion adsorption onto FSM/SiC. Remarkably, FSM/SiC demonstrated exceptional regeneration potential, positioning it as a promising solution for water decontamination and environmental remediation. This research showcases FSM/SiC's potential with a maximum adsorption capacity of 41.6 mg/g for cadmium ions, highlighting its significance in addressing cadmium contamination.

Identification of cyclooxygenase-II inhibitory saponins from fenugreek wastes: Insights from liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry metabolomics, molecular networking, and molecular docking.

INTRODUCTION: This research explores sustainable applications for waste generated from fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum), a plant with both nutritional and medicinal uses. The study specifically targets waste components as potential sources of nutrients and bioactive compounds. OBJECTIVES: The focus is to conduct detailed metabolic profiling of fenugreek waste, assess its anti-inflammatory properties by studying its cyclooxygenase (COX) inhibitory effect, and correlate this effect to the metabolite fingerprint. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Ethanolic extracts of fenugreek fruit pericarp and a combination of leaves and stems were subjected to untargeted metabolic profiling using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry integrated with online database searches and molecular networking as an effective dereplication strategy. The study also scrutinized the COX inhibitory capabilities of these extracts and saponin-rich fractions prepared therefrom. Molecular docking was employed to investigate the specific interactions between the identified saponins and COX enzymes. RESULTS: The analysis led to the annotation of 81 metabolites, among which saponins were predominant. The saponin-rich fraction of the fruit pericarp extract displayed the strongest COX-II inhibitory activity in the in vitro inhibition assay (IC50 value of 81.64 ± 3.98 µg/mL). The molecular docking study supported the selectivity of the identified saponins towards COX-II. The two major identified saponins, namely, proto-yamogenin 3-O-[deoxyhexosyl (1 → 2)] [hexosyl (1 → 4)] hexoside 26-O-hexoside and trigofenoside A, were predicted to have the highest affinity to the COX-II receptor site. CONCLUSION: In the present study, we focused on the identification of COX-II inhibitory saponins in fenugreek waste through an integrated approach. The findings offer valuable insights into potential anti-inflammatory and cancer chemoprotective applications of fenugreek waste.

The amelioration of salt stress-induced damage in fenugreek through the application of cold plasma and melatonin.

Nowadays, it is increasingly crucial to combine innovative approaches with established methods to enhance plant tolerance and maximize the production of beneficial compounds. With this aim in view, a study was carried out to investigate how different melatonin concentrations (0, 30, and 60 ppm), cold plasma treatment (at 3000 and 4000 V), and varying exposure durations (0, 1, 2, and 4 min) affect the physiological and biochemical attributes of fenugreek plants, as well as the levels of diosgenin under salinity stress. This study revealed that the application of 3000 V cold plasma for 2 min with 60 ppm melatonin by establishing cellular redox homeostasis in salinity-treated fenugreek plants, effectively prevented the destruction of pigments and reduced the electrolyte leakage index of malondialdehyde content. The utilization of these two elicitors has the potential to trigger multiple pathways, including the enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants biosynthesis, and abscisic acid-dependent pathways. This activation results in an enhanced production of abscisic acid, auxin, and endogenous melatonin, along with the regulation of signal transduction pathways. Surprisingly, applying these two treatments increased the expression of SQS, CAS, SSR, BGL, SEP, SMT, and diosgenin content by 13, 22.5, 21.6, 19, 15.4, 12, and 6 times respectively. The findings highlight the intricate interplay between these treatments and the positive impact of their combined application, opening up avenues for further research and practical applications in improving plant tolerance to environmental stresses.

Study on structure and properties of galactomannan and enzyme changes during fenugreek seeds germination.

Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L) galactomannan play an important role in the food and pharmaceutical sectors due to its attractive physicochemical properties. In this study, the changes of structure, properties and biological activity of fenugreek galactomannan (FG) during germination are analyzed by the activity and mechanism of endogenous enzymes (α-D-galactosidase and ß-D-mannanase). The enzymes generally increased during germination and synergistically altered the structure of GM by cutting down the main chains and removing partial side residues. The mannose to galactose ratio (M/G) increased from 1.11 to 1.59, which is accompanied by a drastic decrease in molecular weight from 3.606 × 106 to 0.832 × 106 g/mol, and the drop of viscosity from 0.27 to 0.06 Pa·sn. The degraded macromolecules are attributed to the increase in solubility (from 64.55 % to 88.62 %). In terms of antioxidation and antidiabetic ability, germinated fenugreek galactomannan has the ability to scavenge 67.17 % ABTS free radicals and inhibit 86.89 % α-glucosidase. This galactomannan with low molecular weight and excellent biological activity precisely satisfies the current demands of pharmaceutical reagents and food industry. Seeds germination holds promise as a means of industrial scale production of low molecular weight galactomannans.

Non-thermal plasma (NTP) treatment of Trigonella foenum-graecum L. seeds stimulates the sprout growth and the production of nutraceutical compounds.

The possibility to stimulate the production of some nutraceutical properties of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) sprouts by non-thermal plasma (NTP) processing of the seeds in different conditions was studied. The non-thermal plasma used in this work was a surface dielectric barrier discharge. Two types of processing were performed: direct NTP treatment and NTP with a cover treatment, to simulate the processing of packaged seeds. For all treatments, the effect of pre-soaking of the seeds was studied as well. The analyses of the seeds after processing indicated an increase of the hydrophilicity of their surface for NTP direct treatment as resulted from the water contact angle measurements, which could be due to the strong etching evidenced by scanning electron microscopy imaging. A significant (p < 0.05) increase of the seedling growth, by up to 50%, was found especially for the pre-soaked seeds. These results were correlated with the increase of chlorophyll pigments concentrations, with higher concentrations in the case of NTP direct treatment than for the NTP with cover treatments. Direct NTP treatment for 30 s of dry seeds led to the highest increase of the flavonoid concentration of about three times compared to that obtained for untreated seeds. For the polyphenols and antioxidant activity, NTP with cover treatments proved to be better, with a significant increase, especially for 90 s treatment of the pre-soaked seeds. All the results indicate the possibility of tuning the nutraceutical properties of fenugreek sprouts by NTP treatment.