Una ontología híbrida de género: cromosomas, fotografías y ecografías en la circulación de la imaginería fetal en España, 1950-1970 / A hybrid ontology of gender chromosomes, photographs, and ultrasound scans in the circulation of fetal imagery in Spain, 1950-1970

Este texto presenta una propuesta de cronología de imágenes fetales en España, que incluye el proceso de producción y circulación de representaciones de cromosomas humanos —el cariotipo como retrato—, de las fotografías hechas y publicadas por el fotógrafo sueco Lennart Nilsson y de las figuras obtenidas por ecografía. Este conjunto de representaciones construyó la cultura visual del feto como una ontología híbrida que tomó la forma de sujeto histórico de género. Esa manufactura medicalizó y tecnificó el embarazo, privilegió al embrión y al feto y restó protagonismo al cuerpo de las mujeres. El trabajo se suma a la historiografía sobre la centralidad del feto, que se analiza aquí como producto de la interacción entre tres tecnologías: la citológica, la fotográfica y la ecográfica. (AU)

This article presents a proposal for a chronology of fetal images in Spain that includes the process of production and circulation of human chromosomes (fetal karyotype as a portrait), of the photographs of fetuses by Lennart Nilsson, and of the images provided by ultrasound scanning. This set of representations made the visual culture of the fetus a gendered historical subject that medicalized and technified pregnancy, privileging the fetus instead of the woman’s pregnant body as the subject of pregnancy. In this process, the fetus gained autonomy as a hybrid ontology. This article contributes to a fetal historiography that analyzes the fetus as manufactured by the interaction of three technologies: cytology, photography, and ultrasound scanning. (AU)

Development of prenatal screening--A historical overview.

The first prenatal screening test to be introduced was based on a single maternal serum marker of neural tube defects. Since then various prenatal screening concepts have been developed, the most successful being Down syndrome risk estimation using multiple serum and ultrasound markers. Today a completely new approach to aneuploidy screening is available based on maternal plasma cell-free DNA testing. This has the potential to markedly improve screening performance but routine testing is currently too expensive in a public health setting. However, it can be cost-effective when used in combination with existing multi-maker tests. Some are beginning to broaden prenatal screening to include pregnancy complications such as pre-eclampsia that can be prevented using soluble low-dose aspirin treatment started before 16 weeks of gestation. Prenatal screening for cardiac abnormalities, fragile X syndrome and recessive genetic disorders is underutilized and public health planners should considered a more widespread application of available methods.

The history of imaging in obstetrics.

During the past century, imaging of the pregnant patient has been performed with radiography, scintigraphy, computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and ultrasonography (US). US imaging has emerged as the primary imaging modality, because it provides real-time images at relatively low cost without the use of ionizing radiation. This review begins with a discussion of the history and current status of imaging modalities other than US for the pregnant patient. The discussion then turns to an in-depth description of how US technology advanced to become such a valuable diagnostic tool in the obstetric patient. Finally, the broad range of diagnostic uses of US in these patients is presented, including its uses for distinguishing an intrauterine pregnancy from a failed or ectopic pregnancy in the first trimester; assigning gestational age and assessing fetal weight; evaluating the fetus for anomalies and aneuploidy; examining the uterus, cervix, placenta, and amniotic fluid; and guiding obstetric interventional procedures.

Prenatal diagnosis: the irresistible rise of the 'visible fetus'.

Prenatal diagnosis was developed in the 1970s, a result of a partly contingent coming together of three medical innovations-amniocentesis, the study of human chromosomes and obstetrical ultrasound-with a social innovation, the decriminalization of abortion. Initially this diagnostic approach was proposed only to women at high risk of fetal malformations. Later, however, the supervision of the fetus was extended to all pregnant women. The latter step was strongly favoured by professionals' aspiration to prevent the birth of children with Down syndrome, an inborn condition perceived as a source of suffering for families and a burden on public purse. Experts who promoted screening for 'Down risk' assumed that the majority of women who carry a Down fetus will decide to terminate the pregnancy, and will provide a private solution to a public health problem. The generalization of screening for Down risk increased in turn the frequency of diagnoses of other, confirmed or potential fetal pathologies, and of dilemmas linked with such diagnoses. Debates on such dilemmas are usually limited to professionals. The transformation of prenatal diagnosis into a routine medical technology was, to a great extent, an invisible revolution.

Ecografía en técnicas de Reproducción Asistida / Ultrasound in Assisted Reproductive techniques

La presente revisión de las aplicaciones de la ecografía en las técnicas de reproducción asistida tiene como misión una puesta al día de los últimos datos acerca de su utilidad en el diagnóstico de patologías previas a la realización de la técnica (endometriosis, pólipos endometriales, malformaciones uterinas, miomas, adenomiosis, síndrome de Asherman, ovarios poliquísticos, , hidrosálpinx, etc), la valoración de la reserva ovárica y receptividad endometrial, la diferenciación entre formaciones funcionales que frecuentemente encontramos durante los tratamientos y el uso como guía tanto para controlar el desarrollo multifolicular como la punción ovárica y la transferencia embrionaria. Por último se trata la ayuda que presta la ecografía en el diagnóstico y tratamiento del síndrome de hiperestimulación ovárica y durante el diagnóstico precoz de la gestación normal y patológica, así como su papel en la reducción embrionaria y terminación selectiva de la gestación (AU)

The aim of this review is to present the latest data about the applications of ultrasound in assisted reproductive techniques (ARTs) and their relevance in the diagnosis of pathologies related with infertility (endometriosis, endometrial polyps, uterine malformations, myomas, adenomyosis, Asherman syndrome, polycystic ovaries, hydrosalpinx, etc.). The usefulness of this technique to assess ovarian reserve, to recognize functional ovarian cysts frequently found during treatments, its use as guide for multiple follicular development and its potential to evaluate endometrial receptivity is also updated. Besides, the role of ultrasound during the realization of the oocyte pick up and embryo transfer is also evaluated. Finally, the relevance of ultrasound in other aspects related with reproduction as the diagnosis and treatment of ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (OHS), the early diagnosis of normal and pathological pregnancy, as well as fetal reduction and selective termination of pregnancies is also covered (AU)