Cost-effectiveness analysis of adult pneumococcal conjugate vaccines for pneumococcal disease in Japan.

BACKGROUND: The 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV23) is used in the Japanese National Immunization Program for older adults and adults with increased risk for pneumococcal disease, however, disease incidence and associated burden remain high. We evaluated the cost-effectiveness of pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCVs) for adults aged 65 years and high-risk adults aged 60-64 years in Japan. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Using a Markov model, we evaluated lifetime costs using societal and healthcare payer perspectives and estimated quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs), and number of prevented cases and deaths caused by invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) and non-IPD. The base case analysis used a societal perspective. RESULTS: In comparison with PPSV23, the 20-valent PCV (PCV20) prevented 127 IPD cases 10,813 non-IPD cases (inpatients: 2,461, outpatients: 8,352) and 226 deaths, and gained more QALYs (+0.0015 per person) with less cost (-JPY22,513 per person). All sensitivity and scenario analyses including a payer perspective analysis indicated that the incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs) were below the cost-effectiveness threshold value in Japan (JPY5 million/QALY). CONCLUSIONS: PCV20 is both cost saving and more effective than PPSV23 for adults aged 65 years and high-risk adults aged 60-64 years in Japan.

The impact and cost-effectiveness of pneumococcal immunisation strategies for the elderly in England.

Pneumococcal disease, presenting as invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) or community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) is an important cause of illness and hospitalisation in the elderly. To reduce pneumococcal burden, since 2003, 65-year-olds in England have been offered a 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPV23). This study compares the impact and cost-effectiveness (CE) of vaccination with the existing PPV23 vaccine to the new 15-and 20-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCV15 and PCV20), targeting adults aged 65 or 75 years old. We developed a static Markov model for immunisation against pneumococcal disease, capturing different vaccine effectiveness and immunity waning assumptions, projecting the number of IPD/CAP cases averted over the thirty years following vaccination. Using an economic model and probabilistic sensitivity analysis we evaluated the CE of the different immunisation strategies at current vaccine list prices and the willingness-to-pay at a median threshold of £20,000/QALY and an uncertainty threshold of 90% of simulations below £30,000/QALY. PCV20 averted more IPD and CAP cases than PCV15 or PPV23 over the thirty years following vaccination: 353(360), 145(159) and 150(174) IPD and 581(673), 259(485) and 212(235) CAP cases at a vaccination age of 65(75) under base vaccine effectiveness assumptions. At the listed prices of PCV20 and PPV23 vaccines as of May 2023, both vaccines were cost-effective when vaccinating 65- or 75-year-olds with an ICER threshold of £20,000 per QALY. To achieve the same cost-effectiveness as PPV23, the additional cost of PCV20 should be less than £44(£91) at an ICER threshold of £20,000/QALY (£30,000/QALY) if vaccination age is 65 (or £54(£103) if vaccination age is increased to 75). We showed that both PPV23 and PCV20 were likely to be cost-effective. PCV20 was likely to avert more cases of pneumococcal disease in elderly adults in England than the current PPV23 vaccine, given input assumptions of a higher vaccine effectiveness and slower waning for PCV20.

Evaluating the health and economic outcomes of a PCV15 vaccination program for adults aged 65 years-and-above in Switzerland.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the health and economic outcomes of a PCV13 or PCV15 age-based (65 years-and-above) vaccination program in Switzerland. INTERVENTIONS: The three vaccination strategies examined were:Target population: All adults aged 65 years-and-above. Perspective(s): Switzerland health care payer. TIME HORIZON: 35 years. Discount rate: 3.0%. Costing year: 2023 Swiss Francs (CHF). STUDY DESIGN: A static Markov state-transition model. DATA SOURCES: Published literature and publicly available databases or reports. OUTCOME MEASURES: Pneumococcal diseases (PD) i.e., invasive pneumococcal diseases (IPD) and non-bacteremic pneumococcal pneumonia (NBPP); total quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs), total costs and incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (CHF/QALY gained). RESULTS: Using an assumed coverage of 60%, the PCV15 strategy prevented a substantially higher number of cases/deaths than the PCV13 strategy when compared to the No vaccination strategy (1,078 IPD; 21,155 NBPP; 493 deaths). The overall total QALYs were 10,364,620 (PCV15), 10,364,070 (PCV13), and 10,362,490 (no vaccination). The associated overall total costs were CHF 741,949,814 (PCV15), CHF 756,051,954 (PCV13) and CHF 698,329,579 (no vaccination). Thus, the PCV13 strategy was strongly dominated by the PCV15 strategy. The ICER of the PCV15 strategy (vs. no vaccination) was CHF 20,479/QALY gained. In two scenario analyses where the vaccine effectiveness for serotype 3 were reduced (75% to 39.3% for IPD; 45% to 23.6% for NBPP) and NBPP incidence was increased (from 1,346 to 1,636/100,000), the resulting ICERs were CHF 29,432 and CHF 13,700/QALY gained, respectively. The deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses demonstrated the robustness of the qualitative results-the estimated ICERs for the PCV15 strategy (vs. No vaccination) were all below CHF 30,000/QALYs gained. CONCLUSIONS: These results demonstrate that using PCV15 among adults aged 65 years-and-above can prevent a substantial number of PD cases and deaths while remaining cost-effective over a range of inputs and scenarios.

Cost-effectiveness analysis of 20-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine for routine pediatric vaccination programs in Japan.

BACKGROUND: The Japanese National Immunization Program currently includes the pediatric 13 valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13) to prevent pneumococcal infections. We aimed to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of 20-valent PCV (PCV20) as a pediatric vaccine versus PCV13. METHODS: A decision-analytic Markov model was used to estimate expected costs, quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs), and prevented cases and deaths caused by invasive pneumococcal disease, pneumonia, and acute otitis media over a ten-year time horizon from the societal and healthcare payer perspectives. RESULTS: PCV20 was dominant, i.e. less costly and more effective, over PCV13 (gained 294,599 QALYs and reduced Japanese yen [JPY] 352.6 billion [2.6 billion United States dollars, USD] from the societal perspective and JPY 178.9 billion [USD 1.4 billion] from the payer perspective). Sensitivity and scenario analyses validated the robustness of the base scenario results. When comparing PCV20 with PCV13, the threshold analysis revealed an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio that was within the threshold value (JPY 5 million/QALY) at a maximum acquisition cost of JPY 74,033 [USD 563] (societal perspective) and JPY 67,758 [USD 515] (payer perspective). CONCLUSIONS: As a pediatric vaccine, PCV20 was dominant over PCV13 regardless of the study perspective.

Health and economic impact of the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in hindering antimicrobial resistance in China.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) poses a serious threat to global public health. However, vaccinations have been largely undervalued as a method to hinder AMR progression. This study examined the AMR impact of increasing pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) coverage in China. China has one of the world's highest rates of antibiotic use and low PCV coverage. We developed an agent-based DREAMR (Dynamic Representation of the Economics of AMR) model to examine the health and economic benefits of slowing AMR against commonly used antibiotics. We simulated PCV coverage, pneumococcal infections, antibiotic use, and AMR accumulation. Four antibiotics to treat pneumococcal diseases (penicillin, amoxicillin, third-generation cephalosporins, and meropenem) were modeled with antibiotic utilization, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics factored into predicting AMR accumulation. Three PCV coverage scenarios were simulated over 5 y: 1) status quo with no change in coverage, 2) scaled coverage increase to 99% in 5 y, and 3) accelerated coverage increase to 85% over 2 y followed by 3 y to reach 99% coverage. Compared to the status quo, we found that AMR against penicillin, amoxicillin, and third-generation cephalosporins was significantly reduced by 6.6%, 10.9%, and 9.8% in the scaled scenario and by 10.5%, 17.0%, and 15.4% in the accelerated scenario. Cumulative costs due to AMR, including direct and indirect costs to patients and caretakers, were reduced by $371 million in the scaled and $586 million in the accelerated scenarios compared to the status quo. AMR-reducing benefits of vaccines are essential to quantify in order to drive appropriate investment.

Vacunación frente al neumococo en adultos mayores de 65 años / Pneumococcal vaccine for adults over 65

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Cost-effectiveness of introducing a domestic pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV7-TT) into the Cuban national immunization programme.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the cost-effectiveness of introducing a domestic pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV7-TT) into the Cuban National Immunization Program (NIP). METHODS: We compared PCV7-TT given at two, four and six months of age to a scenario without PCV7-TT, over a ten-year period (2020-2029). We calculated the cost (Cuban pesos - CUP) per Disability Adjusted Life Year (DALY) averted from a Government perspective. We compared results from a static cohort model and a parsimonious prediction model informed by the serotype distribution among pneumococcal carriers and cases. We ran probabilistic and deterministic uncertainty analyses. RESULTS: PCV7-TT could prevent 6897 (95% uncertainty interval, 4344-8750) hospitalizations and 189 (115-253) deaths in children <5 years of age, over the period 2020-2029. This could cost around 25 million (20-31) discounted CUP but would be offset by treatment cost savings of around 23 million (14-31). A parsimonious model predicted less favourable impact and cost-effectiveness but the cost per DALY averted was still less than 0.4 times the current GDP per capita. CONCLUSIONS: PCV7-TT is likely to be cost-effective in Cuba. The impact of the vaccine would need to be carefully monitored following its introduction into the NIP.

Pneumococcal Vaccination in Adults Aged ≥65 Years: Cost-Effectiveness and Health Impact in U.S. Populations.

INTRODUCTION: Recommending both the conjugate and polysaccharide pneumococcal vaccines to all U.S. seniors may have little public health impact and be economically unreasonable. Public health impact and cost-effectiveness of using both vaccines in all adults aged ≥65 years were estimated compared with an alternative strategy (omitting pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in the nonimmunocompromised) and with the newly revised recommendation (giving or omitting conjugate vaccine based on patient-physician shared decision making). METHODS: Strategies were examined in hypothetical U.S. 65-year-old population cohorts and segmented into health states based on age- and population-specific data in a Markov state-transition model with a lifetime time horizon from a healthcare perspective. Black population cohorts were examined separately given greater illness risk and lower vaccine uptake. Model parameters came from the Centers for Disease Control Active Core Bacterial Surveillance network, National Health Interview Survey, and Nationwide Inpatient Sample data. Outcomes included incremental costs per quality-adjusted life year gained and pneumococcal disease outcomes for each strategy. Data were gathered and analysis performed in 2018. RESULTS: Giving both vaccines, either routinely or with shared decision making, was most effective, reducing pneumococcal disease incidence compared with no vaccination, but costing $765,000-$2.18 million/quality-adjusted life year gained. Depending on examined population and scenario, the alternative strategy cost $65,700-$226,700/quality-adjusted life year gained (less in black populations) and reduced cases and deaths by 0.3%-0.9%. CONCLUSIONS: A vaccination strategy that omits pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in immunocompetent U.S. seniors may be economically reasonable, particularly for black seniors. Use of both pneumococcal vaccines was more effective but substantially more expensive.

The cost-effectiveness of using pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13) versus pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV23), in South African adults.

Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) remains an important cause of morbidity and mortality. Pneumococcal vaccination is part of the South African pediatric public immunization program but the potential cost-effectiveness of such an intervention for adults is unknown. This study aimed to compare the cost-effectiveness of two widely used pneumococcal vaccines: pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13) and pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV23) in South African adults, 18 years and older. Four analyses were carried out in a) both the private and public health care sectors; and b) for the HIV-infected population alone and for the total mixed population (all HIV-infected and -uninfected people). A previously published global pharmacoeconomic model was adapted and populated to represent the South African adult population. The model utilized a Markov-type process to depict the lifetime clinical and economic outcomes of patients who acquire pneumococcal disease in 2015, from a societal perspective. Costs were sourced in South African rand and converted to US dollar (USD). The incremental cost divided by the incremental effectiveness (expressed as quality-adjusted life years gained) represented the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio for PCV13 compared to PPSV23. Results indicated that the use of PCV13 compared to PPSV23 is highly cost-effective in the public sector cohorts with incremental cost-effectiveness ratios of $771 (R11,106)/quality-adjusted life year and $956 (R13,773)/quality-adjusted life year for the HIV-infected and mixed populations, respectively. The private sector cohort showed similar highly cost-effective results for the mixed population (incremental cost-effectiveness ratio $626 (R9,013)/quality-adjusted life year) and the HIV-infected cohort (dominant). In sensitivity analysis, the model was sensitive to vaccine price and effectiveness. Probabilistic sensitivity analyses found predominantly cost-effective ICERs. From a societal perspective, these findings provide some guidance to policy makers for consideration and implementation of an immunization strategy for both the public and private sector and amongst different adult patient pools in South Africa.

Dynamic transmission models and economic evaluations of pneumococcal conjugate vaccines: a quality appraisal and limitations.

BACKGROUND: Of over 90 serotypes of Streptococcus pneumoniae, only seven were included in the first pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV). While PCV reduced the disease incidence, in part because of a herd immunity effect, a replacement effect was observed whereby disease was increasingly caused by serotypes not included in the vaccine. Dynamic transmission models can account for these effects to describe post-vaccination scenarios, whereas economic evaluations can enable decision-makers to compare vaccines of increasing valency for implementation. AIM: The aim of this review was to examine epidemiological and economic models and their assumptions for their potential contributions to future research and immunisation policy. SOURCES: Pubmed, Scopus, Ovid, ISI Web of Knowledge, Centre of Reviews and Dissemination (CRD) databases were searched. CONTENT: Twenty-three dynamic transmission models and 21 economic models were retrieved and reviewed. Published models employed various templates, revealing several key uncertainties regarding the biology and epidemiology of pneumococcal infection. While models suggested that PCVs will reduce the burden of disease, the extent to which they are predicted to do so depended on various assumptions regarding features of pneumococcal infection and epidemiology that governed PCV cost-effectiveness as well. Such features include the duration of protection and competitive interactions between serotypes, which are unclear at present, but which directly relate to herd immunity and serotype replacement. IMPLICATIONS: Economic evaluations are not typically based on transmission dynamic models and hence omit indirect herd immunity effects. The two tools could be used in conjunction to inform decision-makers on vaccine implementation, but so far there have been few attempts to build economic evaluations on transmission dynamic models, and none in this field. Future directions for research could include studies to evaluate key parameters for the models involving herd immunity, serotype competition and the natural history of infection.

Evaluación económica de la vacunación frente al neumococo en mayores de 65 años de Castilla y León / Economic evaluation of pneumococcal vaccination in adults aged over 65 years in Castilla y León (SPAIN)

Introducción: La carga de enfermedad por neumonía en adultos mayores supone un impacto de gran magnitud en los sistemas de salud. El objetivo de este trabajo es realizar una evaluación económica de la estrategia de vacunación frente a Streptococcus pneumoniae mediante la vacuna neumocócica conjugada 13-valente frente a la no vacunación. Material y métodos: Se ha desarrollado un modelo económico simulado en forma de árbol de decisión para evaluar el coste/efectividad de la estrategia de vacunación en la cohorte de población mayor de 65 años del Área de Salud de Valladolid-Este versus no vacunación mediante un análisis probabilístico de Monte Carlo. Resultados: Streptococcus pneumoniae origina anualmente en el Área de Salud Valladolid-Este un total de 557,24 casos de enfermedad neumocócica, de los cuales 506,60 episodios son cuadros neumónicos. A partir del tercer año, la vacunación a la población mayor de 65 años es una medida eficiente, con un coste por años de vida ajustados por calidad (AVAC) de 20.496,20 Euros. El número de AVAC ganados en una década es de 86,07 y se evitaría el gasto de 216.252,89 Euros con esta estrategia vacunal. Conclusiones: La evaluación de los diferentes costes incrementales (AVAC y euros) en los años de seguimiento pone de manifiesto que el programa de vacunación frente al neumococo a personas mayores de 65 años en Castilla y León es una medida coste eficiente

Introduction: The burden of disease due to pneumonia in older adults has a major impact on health systems. The aim of this study is to carry out an economic evaluation of the vaccination strategy against Streptococcus pneumoniae using the 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine. Material and methods: A simulated economic model has been developed in the form of a decision tree to evaluate the cost of the vaccination strategy in the population over 65 years of the Valladolid-East Health Area, versus non-vaccination, using a Monte Carlo probabilistic analysis. Results: Streptococcus pneumoniae annually generates 557.24 cases of pneumococcal disease in the Valladolid-East Health Area, and 506.60 episodes have pneumonia symptoms. Vaccination of the cohort over 65 years of age is an efficient measure from the third year, with a cost per quality-adjusted life years (QALY) of 20,496.20 Euros. The number of QALYs gained in a decade is 86.07 and an amount of 216.252.89 Euros with this vaccination strategy would be saved. Conclusions: The evaluation of the different incremental costs (QALY,euros) in the years of follow-up, the pneumococcus vaccination program in people over 65 in Castilla y León is cost-effective

Estimating the economic impact of pneumococcal conjugate, Haemophilus influenzae type b and rotavirus vaccines in India: National and state-level analyses.

BACKGROUND: To support vaccine decision-making we estimated from the societal perspective the potential health impact and costs averted through immunization with three vaccines - Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib), pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) and rotavirus vaccine (RVV). METHODS: Based on variability in disease burden, strength of health system and economic status, we selected four states in India: Bihar, New Delhi, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. We used secondary data sources to estimate the number of under-5 deaths averted from Hib, pneumococcus and rotavirus in each state and back-calculated the total cases averted. We synthesized available data to estimate the disease burden, treatment cost, caretaker productivity loss and vaccine coverage in each state. A Delphi Survey and roundtable among Indian experts was conducted to reach consensus on model inputs. RESULTS: By scaling up coverage of Hib, PCV and RVV, India could save over US$1 billion (uncertainty range: US$0.9-US$2.4 billion) in economic benefits and avert more than 90,000 needless child deaths each year. An estimated US$1 billion (US$0.9-US$2 billion) or 88% of the total amount of cost savings would be attributable to lost productivity due to premature pneumococcal death. Another US$112.8 million (US$105-297 million), or 10% of the total cost would be accounted by costs related to loss of productivity due to disability as a result of these diseases. Treatment costs of Hib, pneumococcal disease and rotavirus gastroenteritis, would account for US$8.4 million (US$4-12 million) or <1% of the total costs of these diseases. Finally, caretaker productivity loss from seeking care would represent US$1.5 million (US$ 1-4.9 million). Cost savings varied by vaccine, coverage scenarios and states. CONCLUSIONS: Hib, PCV and RVV vaccine introduction in India can result in immediate benefits to the government and households in terms of savings.

Cost-effectiveness analysis on elderly pneumococcal vaccination in the Netherlands: Challenging the Dutch Health Council's advice.

Recently, the Dutch Health Council advised on elderly pneumococcal vaccination favouring the conventional polysaccharide vaccine over the novel conjugated vaccine. This advice was strongly inspired by a cost-effectiveness analysis considered to show favourable outcomes for the polysaccharide but not for the conjugated vaccine. We argue that using the same data and methods as presented by the Health Council, a different perspective on the results leads to a conclusion that not only the polysaccharide but also the conjugated pneumococcal vaccine is cost-effective. Our alternative perspective concerns the use of realistic vaccine prices, and applying an adequate time horizon for cost-effectiveness modelling. Notably, for one-off vaccination of 65-years old elderly, in all investigated analyses, also the conjugated vaccine seems cost-effective; i.e. well below the threshold of €20,000 per quality-adjusted life year, reflecting the most stringent threshold used for vaccines in the Netherlands.

An updated cost-effectiveness analysis of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine among children in Thailand.

BACKGROUND: A previous cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) showed that Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine (PCV) 10 and PCV13 were not cost-effective for universal immunization among children in Thailand. Given recent changes in the evidence of efficacy, herd effects and price, a CEA of PCVs should be revisited. This study aimed to determine the cost-effectiveness of PCV10 and PCV13 compared to no PCV vaccination in Thai children. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A Markov model was developed under a societal perspective with a lifetime horizon. Inputs were derived from a comprehensive literature review. Costs were calculated using the Thai National Electronic Database and converted to the year 2017 value. All costs and outcomes were discounted at a rate of 3%. The findings were reported as incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs) in Thai Baht (THB) per quality-adjusted life year (QALY) gained. Sensitivity analyses were performed. A cost-effectiveness acceptability curve was generated with the cost-effectiveness threshold of 160,000 THB/QALY. RESULTS: Base-case analysis of 2 + 1 dose schedule and five-year protection, with no consideration of herd effect showed that ICER for PCV10 was 170,437 THB/QALY, while ICER for PCV13 was 73,674 THB/QALY. With consideration of herd effect, both PCV10 and PCV13 had lower costs and higher QALYs compared to no PCV vaccination. Based on our probabilistic sensitivity analysis at willingness-to-pay of 160,000 THB/QALY, PCV13 had 93% of being cost-effective, while 4.7% and 2.3%, for PCV10 and no PCV vaccination, respectively. CONCLUSION: At current prices, PCV13 is cost-effective, while PCV10 is not cost-effective in Thailand. When considering herd-effect, both PCV10 and PCV13 are cost-effective.

[Economic evaluation of pneumococcal vaccination in adults aged over 65 years in Castilla y León (SPAIN)]. / Evaluación económica de la vacunación frente al neumococo en mayores de 65 años de Castilla y León.

INTRODUCTION: The burden of disease due to pneumonia in older adults has a major impact on health systems. The aim of this study is to carry out an economic evaluation of the vaccination strategy against Streptococcus pneumoniae using the 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A simulated economic model has been developed in the form of a decision tree to evaluate the cost of the vaccination strategy in the population over 65 years of the Valladolid-East Health Area, versus non-vaccination, using a Monte Carlo probabilistic analysis. RESULTS: Streptococcus pneumoniae annually generates 557.24 cases of pneumococcal disease in the Valladolid-East Health Area, and 506.60 episodes have pneumonia symptoms. Vaccination of the cohort over 65 years of age is an efficient measure from the third year, with a cost per quality-adjusted life years (QALY) of 20,496.20 €. The number of QALYs gained in a decade is 86.07 and an amount of 216.252.89 € with this vaccination strategy would be saved. CONCLUSIONS: The evaluation of the different incremental costs (QALY,euros) in the years of follow-up, the pneumococcus vaccination program in people over 65 in Castilla y León is cost-effective.

Cost-Effectiveness of Alternative Uses of Polyvalent Meningococcal Vaccines in Niger: An Agent-Based Transmission Modeling Study.

Background. Despite the introduction of an effective serogroup A conjugate vaccine (MenAfriVac™), sporadic epidemics of other Neisseria meningitidis serogroups remain a concern in Africa. Polyvalent meningococcal conjugate (PMC) vaccines may offer alternatives to current strategies that rely on routine infant vaccination with MenAfriVac plus, in the event of an epidemic, district-specific reactive campaigns using polyvalent meningococcal polysaccharide (PMP) vaccines. Methods. We developed an agent-based transmission model of N. meningitidis in Niger to compare the health effects and costs of current vaccination practice and 3 alternatives. Each alternative replaces MenAfriVac in the infant vaccination series with PMC and either replaces PMP with PMC for reactive campaigns or implements a one-time catch up campaign with PMC for children and young adults. Results. Over a 28-year period, replacement of MenAfriVac with PMC in the infant immunization series and of PMP in reactive campaigns would avert 63% of expected cases (95% prediction interval 49%-75%) if elimination of serogroup A is not followed by serogroup replacement. At a PMC price of $4/dose, this would cost $1412 ($81-$3510) per disability-adjusted life-year (DALY) averted. If serogroup replacement occurs, the cost-effectiveness of this strategy improves to $662 (cost-saving, $2473) per DALY averted. Sensitivity analyses accounting for incomplete laboratory confirmation suggest that a catch-up PMC campaign would also meet standard cost-effectiveness thresholds. Limitations. The assumption that polyvalent vaccines offer similar protection against all serogroups is simplifying. Conclusions. The use of PMC vaccines to replace MenAfriVac in routine infant immunization and in district-specific reactive campaigns would have important health benefits and is likely to be cost-effective in Niger. An additional PMC catch-up campaign would also be cost-effective if we account for incomplete laboratory reporting.

Cost-effectiveness of meningococcal polysaccharide serogroups A, C, W-135 and Y conjugate vaccine in Australian adolescents.

OBJECTIVES: The incidence of invasive meningitis disease (IMD) is increasing in Australia. A conjugate vaccine of meningococcal polysaccharide serogroups A, C, W and Y (MenACWY) is currently indicated for infants aged 12 months on the Australian National Immunisation Program. This study sought to determine the cost-effectiveness of a broader MenACWY vaccination program for Australians aged 15 to 19 years. METHODS: A Markov model was constructed to simulate the incidence and consequences of IMD in Australians aged 0-84 years, with follow up until age 85 years. The model comprised four health states: 'Alive with no previous IMD', 'Alive, post IMD without long-term complications', 'Alive, post IMD with long-term complications' and 'Dead'. Decision analysis compared the clinical consequences and costs of a vaccination program versus no vaccination from the perspective of the Australian health care system. Age-specific incidence of IMD and fatality rates were derived from Australian surveillance data. Vaccine coverage, vaccine efficacy and herd immunity were based on published data. The total cost for MenACWY vaccination was AU$56 per dose. Costs and health outcomes were discounted by 5% per annum (in the base-case analysis). RESULTS: Compared to no vaccination, a MenACWY vaccination program targeted at Australians aged 15-19 years was expected to prevent 1664 IMD cases in the Australian population aged 0-84 years followed up until age 85 years. The program would lead to 1131 life years (LYs) and 2058 quality adjusted life years (QALYs) gained at a total cost of AU$115 million (all discounted values). These equated to incremental cost-effectiveness ratios of AU$101,649 per LY gained and AU$55,857 per QALY gained. A probabilistic sensitivity analysis demonstrated a likelihood of cost-effectiveness of 34.6%, assuming a willingness to pay threshold of AU$50,000 per QALY gained. CONCLUSION: The likelihood of this program being cost-effective under a willingness to pay threshold AU$50,000 per QALY gained is 35%.

A Review of the Economic Evidence of Typhoid Fever and Typhoid Vaccines.

Typhoid places a substantial economic burden on low- and middle-income countries. We performed a literature review and critical overview of typhoid-related economic issues to inform vaccine introduction. We searched 4 literature databases, covering 2000-2017, to identify typhoid-related cost-of-illness (COI) studies, cost-of-delivery studies, cost-effectiveness analyses (CEAs), and demand forecast studies. Manual bibliographic searches of reviews revealed studies in the gray literature. Planned studies were identified in conference proceedings and through partner organization outreach. We identified 29 published, unpublished, and planned studies. Published COI studies revealed a substantial burden in Asia, with hospitalization costs alone ranging from $159 to $636 (in 2016 US$) in India, but there was less evidence for the burden in Africa. Cost-of-delivery studies are largely unpublished, but 1 study found that $671 000 in government investments would avert $60 000 in public treatment costs. CEA evidence was limited, but generally found targeted vaccination programs to be cost-effective. This review revealed insufficient economic evidence for vaccine introduction. Countries considering vaccine introduction should have access to relevant economic evidence to aid in decision-making and planning. Planned studies will fill many of the existing gaps in the literature.

Cost-Effectiveness Comparison of Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccines in Turkish Children.

BACKGROUND: The 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13) is used for universal infant vaccination in Turkey. OBJECTIVES: To assess the cost effectiveness of replacing PCV13 with pneumococcal nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae protein D conjugate vaccine (PHiD-CV). METHODS: A Markov cohort model with monthly cycles following 1 cohort of infants over a 10-year time horizon was used. Local input parameters were obtained from published sources and expert consultation whenever possible. The model was adapted to estimate the health benefits and economic impact of each vaccine on invasive pneumococcal disease, pneumonia, and acute otitis media (AOM). An annual discount rate of 3% was used for benefits and costs (2016 euros). RESULTS: Under base-case assumptions, vaccinating 1 birth cohort of 1 325 783 infants with PHiD-CV instead of PCV13 was predicted to have the same impact on meningitis and pneumonia, a similar impact on bacteremia (+30 cases), but greater reductions in AOM-related general practitioner visits (-34 955) and hospitalizations (-624). Assuming equal vaccine prices, PHiD-CV was predicted to be dominant over PCV13 (176 additional quality-adjusted life-years while saving €635 330 [discounted]). One-way sensitivity analysis indicated that varying the vaccine price differential had the largest effect on the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio, and then AOM parameters. Probabilistic sensitivity analysis predicted PHiD-CV to be dominant over PCV13 in 92.4% of simulations. CONCLUSIONS: Any difference in price between PHiD-CV and PCV13 is expected to be the key driver of vaccine choice for preventing childhood pneumococcal disease in Turkey. At price parity, PHiD-CV use is likely to be a dominant strategy over the use of PCV13.