Early identification of acute kidney injury in Russell's viper (Daboia russelii) envenoming using renal biomarkers.

BACKGROUND: Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a major complication of snake envenoming, but early diagnosis remains problematic. We aimed to investigate the time course of novel renal biomarkers in AKI following Russell's viper (Daboia russelii) bites. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We recruited a cohort of patients with definite Russell's viper envenoming and collected serial blood and urine samples on admission (<4h post-bite), 4-8h, 8-16h, 16-24h, 1 month and 3 months post-bite. AKI stage (1-3) was defined using the Acute Kidney Injury Network criteria. AKI stages (1-3) were defined by the Acute Kidney Injury Network (AKIN) criteria. There were 65 Russell's viper envenomings and 49 developed AKI: 24 AKIN stage 1, 13 stage 2 and 12 stage 3. There was a significant correlation between venom concentrations and AKI stage (p = 0.007), and between AKI stage and six peak biomarker concentrations. Although most biomarker concentrations were elevated within 8h, no biomarker performed well in diagnosing AKI <4h post-bite. Three biomarkers were superior to serum creatinine (sCr) in predicting AKI (stage 2/3) 4-8h post-bite: serum cystatin C (sCysC) with an area under the receiver operating curve (AUC-ROC), 0.78 (95%CI:0.64-0.93), urine neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (uNGAL), 0.74 (95%CI:0.59-0.87) and urine clusterin (uClu), 0.81 (95%CI:0.69-0.93). No biomarker was better than sCr after 8h. Six other urine biomarkers urine albumin, urine beta2-microglobulin, urine kidney injury molecule-1, urine cystatin C, urine trefoil factor-3 and urine osteopontin either had minimal elevation, and/or minimal prediction for AKI stage 2/3 (AUC-ROC<0.7). CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: AKI was common and sometimes severe following Russell's viper bites. Three biomarkers uClu, uNGAL and sCysC, appeared to become abnormal in AKI earlier than sCr, and may be useful in early identification of envenoming.

Delayed double reading of whole blood clotting test (WBCT) results at 20 and 30 minutes enhances diagnosis and treatment of viper evenomation

The whole blood clotting test (WBCT) is a simple test of coagulation that is often used in the assessment, diagnosis, and therapeutic monitoring of snakebite patients in sub-Saharan Africa. WBCT requires only a clean glass tube and several milliliters of venous blood and is ideal for use in poorly equipped health centers throughout the rural areas where 95% of snakebites occur. However, questions surrounding the accuracy and reliability of the test remain unanswered due to variations in testing conditions and a lack of comparative research with which to validate them. This is the first study to evaluate WBCT results at both 20-min (WBCT20) and 30-min (WBCT30) reading times in the same group of snakebite patients. Methods In order to define the best reading time, the authors compared the results of serial WBCT evaluation at both 20 and 30 min after collection in 23 patients treated for snake envenomation in Bembèrèkè, northern Benin. Results WBCT results were identical at both reading times in patients without coagulopathy or when coagulation was restored permanently following a single dose of antivenom. Out of 17 patients with coagulopathy, 14 showed discrepancies between WBCT20 and WBCT30 results in at least one pair of serial evaluations. These could be completely contradictory results (e.g. normal clot at WBCT20 and no clot at WBCT30) or a marked difference in the quality of the clot (e.g. no clotting activity at WBCT20 and an unstable partial clot at WBCT30). WBCT discrepancies were encountered most frequently in three situations: initial normalization of hemostasis following antivenom therapy, detection of a secondary resumption of coagulopathy, or final restoration of hemostasis after a secondary resumption had occurred. Conclusions This study suggests that the WBCT is robust and that a sequential reading should improve the diagnosis and monitoring of venom-induced coagulopathies. It also indicates the possibility of discrepancies in the sensitivity of WBCT20 and WBCT30 for detecting the resolution or reoccurrence of coagulopathy and identifies how these findings, if confirmed, may be used to increase the efficacy and efficiency of antivenom treatment in the field.(AU)

Neurotoxicity in Russell's viper (Daboia russelii) envenoming in Sri Lanka: a clinical and neurophysiological study.

CONTEXT: Russell's viper is more medically important than any other Asian snake, due to number of envenoming's and fatalities. Russell's viper populations in South India and Sri Lanka (Daboia russelii) cause unique neuromuscular paralysis not seen in other Russell's vipers. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the time course and severity of neuromuscular dysfunction in definite Russell's viper bites, including antivenom response. METHODOLOGY: We prospectively enrolled all patients (>16 years) presenting with Russell's viper bites over 14 months. Cases were confirmed by snake identification and/or enzyme immunoassay. All patients had serial neurological examinations and in some, single fibre electromyography (sfEMG) of the orbicularis oculi was performed. RESULTS: 245 definite Russell's viper bite patients (median age: 41 years; 171 males) presented a median 2.5 h (interquartile range: 1.75-4.0 h) post-bite. All but one had local envenoming and 199 (78%) had systemic envenoming: coagulopathy in 166 (68%), neurotoxicity in 130 (53%), and oliguria in 19 (8%). Neurotoxicity was characterised by ptosis (100%), blurred vision (93%), and ophthalmoplegia (90%) with weak extraocular movements, strabismus, and diplopia. Neurotoxicity developed within 8 h post-bite in all patients. No bulbar, respiratory or limb muscle weakness occurred. Neurotoxicity was associated with bites by larger snakes (p < 0.0001) and higher peak serum venom concentrations (p = 0.0025). Antivenom immediately decreased unbound venom in blood. Of 52 patients without neurotoxicity when they received antivenom, 31 developed neurotoxicity. sfEMG in 27 patients with neurotoxicity and 23 without had slightly elevated median jitter on day 1 compared to 29 normal subjects but normalised thereafter. Neurological features resolved in 80% of patients by day 3 with ptosis and weak eye movements resolving last. No clinical or neurophysiological abnormality was detected at 6 weeks or 6 months. CONCLUSION: Sri Lankan Russell's viper envenoming causes mild neuromuscular dysfunction with no long-term effects. Indian polyvalent antivenom effectively binds free venom in blood but does not reverse neurotoxicity.

Guillain-Barre syndrome: first description of a snake envenomation aetiology.

BACKGROUND: Guillain-Barre syndrome (GBS) is considered as an acute, immune-mediated polyradiculoneuropathy with different clinical phenotypes arising after viral or bacterial infections, vaccination or surgery. However, in 40% of GBS patients the aetiology remains unknown. In this manuscript, we report the occurrence of GBS in a patient bitten by a snake (Vipera aspis) for which a cross-reaction was shown between GM2 ganglioside and glycosidic epitopes of venom proteins. METHODS: The venom of the snake implied in the patient's envenomation was collected. Its composition was characterised by ELISA and SELDI-TOF MS. Cross-reactivities between venom proteins and GM2 gangliosides were identified by Western blot after immunoabsorption of patient's serum with increasing amounts of purified GM2. Enzymatic deglycosylation of the venom was performed to determine the specificity of the patient's serum cross-reaction. FINDINGS: We proved the absence of neurotoxicity of the viper venom. The patient's serum presented specific cross-reactions with several glycosylated venom proteins. After deglycolysation of these proteins, the patient's serum cross-reactivity was abolished. Furthermore, we compared the immune response to venom proteins of sera from two groups of patients. The first group showed IgM reactivity against GM2 ganglioside associated with GBS, and cross-reacted with venom proteins. The second group presented an IgM reactivity against CMV, without neurological disorders, and reacted with neither venom proteins nor gangliosides. INTERPRETATION: Our study proved the auto-immunological aetiology of GBS in our patient based on molecular mimicry mechanisms between venom proteins and GM2 ganglioside.

Lupus anticoagulant testing: analyzing fresh samples after a single centrifugation and after a 6-8 h delay.

BACKGROUND: For automation it is important to know the effect of analyzing fresh samples after a single rather than after two centrifugations, and to determine test stability. METHODS: This study compared silica clotting times (SCT) and dilute Russel's viper venom tests (dRVVT) after one and two centrifugations in 50 fresh plasma samples. Then it compared test results within 4 h to those after 6-8 h of blood drawing in 40 samples. Means, minimums, maximums and quartiles of the paired screen were compared, test ratios were confirmed and correlations, linear regressions and Bland-Altman statistics were calculated. RESULTS: The distributions of test results were nearly identical, regardless of the number of centrifugations or timing of the analysis. The first centrifugation explained 97.7% and 94.8% of the variance of tests results after the second centrifugation for the SCT and dRVVT, respectively. The test results after 6-8 h explained 98.3% and 96.3% of the variance of the SCT-ratios and dRVVT-ratios, respectively, tested within 4 h. Inter-day coefficients of correlation of ratio comparisons were similar to those of the controls values. CONCLUSIONS: Testing of fresh samples after a single centrifugation might replace batch testing of frozen samples after double centrifugation, providing timelier reporting of results and resulting in savings of technician time.

The first phospholipase inhibitor from the serum of Vipera ammodytes ammodytes.

Ammodytoxins are neurotoxic secretory phospholipase A(2) molecules, some of the most toxic components of the long-nosed viper (Vipera ammodytes ammodytes) venom. Envenomation by this and by closely related vipers is quite frequent in southern parts of Europe and serotherapy is used in the most severe cases. Because of occasional complications, alternative medical treatment of envenomation is needed. In the present study, ammodytoxin inhibitor was purified from the serum of V. a. ammodytes using two affinity procedures and a gel exclusion chromatography step. The ammodytoxin inhibitor from V. a. ammodytes serum consists of 23- and 25-kDa glycoproteins that form an oligomer, probably a tetramer, of about 100 kDa. N-terminal sequencing and immunological analysis revealed that both types of subunit are very similar to gamma-type secretory phospholipase A(2) inhibitors. The ammodytoxin inhibitor from V. a. ammodytes serum is a potent inhibitor of phospholipase activity and hence probably also the neurotoxicity of ammodytoxins. Discovery of the novel natural inhibitor of these potent secretory phospholipase A(2) toxins opens up prospects for the development of new types of small peptide inhibitors for use in regulating the physiological and pathological activities of secretory phospholipases A(2).

Anthrax toxins induce shock in rats by depressed cardiac ventricular function.

Anthrax infections are frequently associated with severe and often irreversible hypotensive shock. The isolated toxic proteins of Bacillus anthracis produce a non-cytokine-mediated hypotension in rats by unknown mechanisms. These observations suggest the anthrax toxins have direct cardiovascular effects. Here, we characterize these effects. As a first step, we administered systemically anthrax lethal toxin (LeTx) and edema toxin (EdTx) to cohorts of three to twelve rats at different doses and determined the time of onset, degree of hypotension and mortality. We measured serum concentrations of the protective antigen (PA) toxin component at various time points after infusion. Peak serum levels of PA were in the microg/mL range with half-lives of 10-20 minutes. With doses that produced hypotension with delayed lethality, we then gave bolus intravenous infusions of toxins to groups of four to six instrumented rats and continuously monitored blood pressure by telemetry. Finally, the same doses used in the telemetry experiments were given to additional groups of four rats, and echocardiography was performed pretreatment and one, two, three and twenty-four hours post-treatment. LeTx and EdTx each produced hypotension. We observed a doubling of the velocity of propagation and 20% increases in left ventricular diastolic and systolic areas in LeTx-treated rats, but not in EdTx-treated rats. EdTx-but not LeTx-treated rats showed a significant increase in heart rate. These results indicate that LeTx reduced left ventricular systolic function and EdTx reduced preload. Uptake of toxins occurs readily into tissues with biological effects occurring within minutes to hours of serum toxin concentrations in the microg/mL range. LeTx and EdTx yield an irreversible shock with subsequent death. These findings should provide a basis for the rational design of drug interventions to reduce the dismal prognosis of systemic anthrax infections.

[Ecarin chromogenic assay: an innovative test for quantitative determination of direct thrombin inhibitors in plasma]. / Ecarin Chromogenic Assay. Innovativer Test zur quantitativen Bestimmung direkter Thrombininhibitoren im Plasma

The ecarin chromogenic assay (ECA) was developed for quantitative determination of direct thrombin inhibitors. As a further development of the ecarin clotting time (ECT), the ECA is based on the same principle, the activation of prothrombin by ecarin a snake venom from Echis carinatus. In the ECA the prothrombin activation products meizothrombin and meizothrombin-desF1 cleave a chromogenic substrate, whereas in the clotting assay ECT plasma fibrinogen is converted to fibrin. The activity of meizothrombin/meizothrombin-desF1 is inhibited in a concentration-dependent fashion by direct thrombin inhibitors. The ECA can be used as ECA-H for quantitative determination of hirudin and as ECA-T for determination of synthetic thrombin inhibitors. As shown for hirudin, argatroban and melagatran, the ECA turned out as a very precise and sensitive method, which combines the advantages of ECT with those of chromogenic assays. In ECA very low interindividual variations were found compared to aPTT and even ECT. The ECA is independent of the variations of the coagulation variables prothrombin and fibrinogen.

Determinación del anticoagulante lúpico: experiencia de 4 años / Determination of the lupus anticoagulant: a 4-year experience

Se realizó un estudio retrospectivo de los resultados de la determinación del anticoagulante lúpico (AL) realizadas en el período comprendido entre julio del 2000 y julio del 2004 en el laboratorio de hemostasis del Instituto de Hematología e Inmunología. En este período se le realizó la determinación del AL a 380 muestras, el 86 por ciento de las cuales pertenecían a pacientes del sexo femenino, la positividad global fue del 7,3 por ciento, el tiempo de veneno de víbora de Russell diluido fue la prueba que detectó más casos positivos (50 por ciento), pero se evidenció la necesidad de realizar más de una prueba para detectar todos los casos positivos. La prevalencia del AL se comportó de la siguiente forma: en el lupus eritematoso sistémico fue del 17,8 por ciento, en la anemia hemolítica autoinmune del 21 por ciento, en la púrpura trombocitopénica idiopática del 7,6 por ciento, en un grupo de misceláneas que incluyó principalmente artralgias, vasculitis, síndrome de Evan- Fischer, tiempo parcial de tromboplastina prolongado, sangramientos e infecciones a repetición fue del 3,5 por ciento, en pacientes con trombosis fue del 7,6 por ciento y en pacientes con abortos a repetición y/o pérdidas fetales del 4,6 por ciento; resulta de gran importancia su determinación en enfermedades autoinmunes, ya que el 39 por ciento de los casos positivos pertenecían a este grupo, aunque su positividad fue baja en el grupo de mujeres con abortos y/o pérdidas fetales a repetición y en pacientes con trombosis

Determinación del anticoagulante lúpico: experiencia de 4 años / Determination of the lupus anticoagulant: a 4-year experience

Se realizó un estudio retrospectivo de los resultados de la determinación del anticoagulante lúpico (AL) realizadas en el período comprendido entre julio del 2000 y julio del 2004 en el laboratorio de hemostasis del Instituto de Hematología e Inmunología. En este período se le realizó la determinación del AL a 380 muestras, el 86 por ciento de las cuales pertenecían a pacientes del sexo femenino, la positividad global fue del 7,3 por ciento, el tiempo de veneno de víbora de Russell diluido fue la prueba que detectó más casos positivos (50 por ciento), pero se evidenció la necesidad de realizar más de una prueba para detectar todos los casos positivos. La prevalencia del AL se comportó de la siguiente forma: en el lupus eritematoso sistémico fue del 17,8 por ciento, en la anemia hemolítica autoinmune del 21 por ciento, en la púrpura trombocitopénica idiopática del 7,6 por ciento, en un grupo de misceláneas que incluyó principalmente artralgias, vasculitis, síndrome de Evan- Fischer, tiempo parcial de tromboplastina prolongado, sangramientos e infecciones a repetición fue del 3,5 por ciento, en pacientes con trombosis fue del 7,6 por ciento y en pacientes con abortos a repetición y/o pérdidas fetales del 4,6 por ciento; resulta de gran importancia su determinación en enfermedades autoinmunes, ya que el 39 por ciento de los casos positivos pertenecían a este grupo, aunque su positividad fue baja en el grupo de mujeres con abortos y/o pérdidas fetales a repetición y en pacientes con trombosis(AU)

Unusual neurotoxic envenomations by Vipera aspis aspis snakes in France.

Vipera aspis aspis (V.a.a.) is the most dangerous poisonous snake in South-Eastern France. The clinical symptoms observed after V.a.a. envenomations involve mostly local signs (pain, edema) associated in the more severe cases with systemic symptoms (gastro-intestinal and cardiovascular manifestations). Since 1992, several unusual cases of moderate and severe 'neurotoxic' envenomations by V.a.a. snakes have been reported in a very localized area in South-Eastern France. Most of the human patients mainly suffered neurological signs owing to cephalic muscle paralysis. Drowsiness and dyspnea were observed for the most severe cases. Envenomed animals suffered respiratory distress and paralysis. The local signs were never as severe as observed after envenomations by vipers in other French regions. Human patients with moderate or severe clinical features received two intravenous injections of Viperfav antivenom, the first dose inducing the decrease of the neurological signs and the second reducing significantly the edema. Neurotoxic components immunologically cross-reacting with toxins from V. ammodytes ammodytes venom from Eastern Europe were detected in the blood of all patients suffering neurological symptoms after a V.a.a. bite. The protective efficacy of various antivenoms was evaluated in mice. The existence of geographical variations in the composition of V.a.a. venom emphasizes on the use of polyvalent antivenom in the treatment of viper envenomations in France.

Field trial of efficacy of local compression immobilization first-aid technique in Russell's viper (Daboia russelii siamensis) bite patients.

A field trial of efficacy of local compression immobilization first-aid technique in 42 Russell's viper bite cases was studied and only 19 were envenomed. Proper immobilization was carried out in 3/13 immobilized cases. The average time of application of the pad was 1.12 hours (range 5 minutes to 7 hours) and the total duration of the pad application was 3 hours 40 minutes (range 30 minutes to 9 hours). Venom levels measured at the hospital before and at 15 and 30 minutes after release of the pad (n=10) showed a rise of 5 to 30 ng/ml of venom following release. Movement of venom antigen was found to be retarded in all cases (n=9) whose venom levels were measured at 15 and 30 minutes with the pad in place. Sixteen out of 19 cases had systemic envenoming, indicating that pad or immobilization alone is not effective in delaying spread of venom. The incidence of local necrosis 3/42 (8%) following use of the pad was comparable to that of the systemic cases without the pad. No ill effects were observed following its application for as long as 9 hours. Local blackening seen in 4/36 (10%) cases was likely to be result of a local venom effect.

[Follow-up of the treatment by direct thrombin inhibitors: activated partial thromboplastin time or ecarin clotting time]. / Surveillance du traitement par les inhibiteurs directs de la thrombine: temps de céphaline avec activateur ou temps d'écarine.

The clinical use of the direct inhibitors of thrombin requires a reliable test to monitor the treatment and to predict the hemorragic risk. The activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT) is the most common test used to monitor treatment with unfractionated heparin. Thus APTT has been first chosen to follow patients treated with direct thrombin inhibitors, but studies have shown that it was probably not the most appropriate test. Indeed, APTT values were not well correlated with the dose administered and were dependent on the type of the thrombin inhibitor used and on the APTT reagent. The ecarin clotting time (ECT), which converts prothrombin into meizothrombin has been then tested and seemed to be a better test. In vitro studies have shown a good correlation between ECT and the different concentrations of thrombin inhibitors. Furthermore, the ECT in contrast to APTT is not sensitive to heparin or oral anticoagulant and interindividual variations are low with ECT. ECT which is a reliable test and is easy to perform seems to be a more appropriate test to monitor treatment with direct thrombin inhibitors but further studies are needed to validate its use in a clinical setting.

A new monospecific ovine Fab fragment antivenom for treatment of envenoming by the Sri Lankan Russell's viper (Daboia Russelii Russelii): a preliminary dose-finding and pharmacokinetic study.

Russell's viper is the most important cause of life-threatening snake bite and acute renal failure in Sri Lanka. Only equine polyspecific antivenoms imported from India are available. They have not proved effective clinically or in clearing venom antigenemia and they frequently cause reactions. In an attempt to reduce mortality and morbidity, a new monospecific ovine Fab fragment antivenom (PolongaTab; Therapeutic Antibodies, Inc., London, United Kingdom) was raised against Sri Lankan Russell's viper venom. In a preliminary dose-finding study in 35 patients, an initial dose of 3-4 g restored blood coagulability permanently and stopped systemic bleeding, even in severely envenomed patients. Venom antigenemia disappeared within 1 hr of antivenom treatment but recurred, probably as a result of continued absorption of venom from the site of the bite, after the rapid clearance of therapeutic antibody. Twelve patients (34%) experienced early reactions that were usually mild and always responded to epinephrine.

Lesines locales y sistemicas inducidas por veneno de Bothrops alternatus (víbora de la cruz) de Argentina / Local and sistemic lesions induced by Bothrops alternatus venom (víbora de la cruz) of Argentine

Se inocularon ratas de 220+= 20 g de peso, en grupos de 5 animales, con 800 ug de veneno de Bothrops alternatus de Argentina desecado y homogeneizado, diluído en 0,1 ml de solución salina, pore via intramuscular. Para la obtención de sangre y su posterior sacrificio, se anestesiaron a las 3, 9 y 24 horas, tomándose muestras del músculo inoculado, hígado y riñón. Se realizaron determinaciones enzimáticas y los tejidos se procesaron para histopatología. A las 3 horas, se observaron necrosis de fibras musculares confirmadas por métodos histoquímicos, hemorragia e infiltrado inflamatorio, los que se intensificaron a las 9 y 24 horas. Paralelamente se observó un incremento plasmático de lñas actividades enzimáticas de creatin fosfoquinasa (CPK), aspartato aminotransferasa (AST) y la alanina aminotransferasa (ALT); siendo máximo el aumento de CPK entre las 3 y 9 horas. La respuesta inflamatoria estudiada en ratón, mostró una reacción rápida cuya recuperación fue lenta. La necrosis de fibras musculares fue acompañada por peroxidación de lípidos y precipitación de calcio en las células. Las lesiones de te4jido hepático no fueron relevantes y en riñón se detectaron alteraciones en zona yuxtamedular y en el intersticio cortical

Lesines locales y sistemicas inducidas por veneno de Bothrops alternatus (víbora de la cruz) de Argentina / Local and sistemic lesions induced by Bothrops alternatus venom (víbora de la cruz) of Argentine

Se inocularon ratas de 220+= 20 g de peso, en grupos de 5 animales, con 800 ug de veneno de Bothrops alternatus de Argentina desecado y homogeneizado, diluído en 0,1 ml de solución salina, pore via intramuscular. Para la obtención de sangre y su posterior sacrificio, se anestesiaron a las 3, 9 y 24 horas, tomándose muestras del músculo inoculado, hígado y riñón. Se realizaron determinaciones enzimáticas y los tejidos se procesaron para histopatología. A las 3 horas, se observaron necrosis de fibras musculares confirmadas por métodos histoquímicos, hemorragia e infiltrado inflamatorio, los que se intensificaron a las 9 y 24 horas. Paralelamente se observó un incremento plasmático de lñas actividades enzimáticas de creatin fosfoquinasa (CPK), aspartato aminotransferasa (AST) y la alanina aminotransferasa (ALT); siendo máximo el aumento de CPK entre las 3 y 9 horas. La respuesta inflamatoria estudiada en ratón, mostró una reacción rápida cuya recuperación fue lenta. La necrosis de fibras musculares fue acompañada por peroxidación de lípidos y precipitación de calcio en las células. Las lesiones de te4jido hepático no fueron relevantes y en riñón se detectaron alteraciones en zona yuxtamedular y en el intersticio cortical(AU)

First clinical experiences with a new ovine Fab Echis ocellatus snake bite antivenom in Nigeria: randomized comparative trial with Institute Pasteur Serum (Ipser) Africa antivenom.

During the past decade, effective snake antivenoms have become scarce in northern Nigeria. As a result, many patients severely envenomed by the saw-scaled or carpet viper (Echis ocellatus), which is responsible for more than 95% of the snake bites in the region, did not receive effective treatment and mortality and morbidity increased. To combat this crisis, a new monospecific ovine Fab antivenom (EchiTab) is being developed. Its theoretical advantages over conventional equine F(ab')2 antivenom are a more rapid tissue penetration and larger apparent volume of distribution (the volume of [tissue] fluid in which the the antivenom would be uniformly distributed to achieve the observed plasma concentration). In a preliminary study, two vials (20 ml; 1.0 g of protein) of EchiTab rapidly and permanently restored blood coagulability and cleared venom antigenemia in seven envenomed patients. Four experienced early reactions that responded to epinephrine. In a randomized comparative trial of one vial (10 ml; 0.5 g protein) of EchiTab or four ampules (40 ml; 2.12 g of protein) of Institute Pasteur Serum (Ipser) Africa polyspecific F(ab')2 antivenom, there were fewer reactions, but only 36% and 35% of patients, respectively, showed permanent restoration of coagulability, with the remainder requiring further doses. This suggests that 0.5 g (one vial) of EchiTab is approximately equivalent to 2.12 g (four ampules) of Ipser Africa antivenom, and that a higher initial dose will be required for most patients. Measurements of circulating venom and antivenom levels reflected the clinical events.

Interaction of echicetin with a high affinity thrombin binding site on platelet glycoprotein GPIb.

Echicetin, a protein isolated from Echis carinatus snake venom, inhibited platelet aggregation and secretion induced by low concentrations of thrombin ( < 0.2 U/ml), by binding to platelet glycoprotein Ib (GPIb). The inhibition was not observed when the platelets were stimulated with higher concentrations of thrombin ( > 0.2 U/ml). Echicetin competed with thrombin for binding to the high affinity site on GPIb. Thrombin also inhibited 50% of the binding of 125I-echicetin to the platelets.

Local compression pads as a first-aid measure for victims of bites by Russell's viper (Daboia russelii siamensis) in Myanmar.

A prospective study of the efficacy of applying local pressure by compression pads in retarding spread of venom was carried out on 15 cases of bite by Russell's viper (Daboia russelii siamensis) in Myanmar. A firm rubber pad was applied with cotton bandaging over the site of bite and the limb was immobilized with a splint. Serial monitoring of venom levels by enzyme immunoassay (EIA) was carried out at 15 min intervals for 1h (2h in one case) while the pad was in place and at 15 and 30 min after its removal. A rise of 10-40ng/mL in serum venom antigen level was observed in most cases after removal of the pad. The central movement of venom antigen was retarded in 13 of the 15 cases. Mild haemostatic changes (factor V and X assays and screening tests) were observed in 10 pad-treated cases measured at the time of onset of incoagulability of blood. The side effects observed while the pads were in place were minimal, consisting of swelling, pain and tenderness, and were well tolerated by most patients (for up to 2h by one patient), except for 2 who had incisions or bruising at the site of the bite.