[Ophthalmological reading tests : Part 1: historical aspects]. / Ophthalmologische Leseproben : Teil 1: Historische Aspekte.

BACKGROUND: The objective of this article was an analytical review of reading charts with regard to the historical background, printing techniques, print quality and print size. METHODS: For this study original historical reading charts (Jaeger, Snellen, Nieden and Birkhäuser) were investigated microscopically by measuring the lower case letter sizes (iNexis VMA 2520, Nikon, Tokyo). Calculations were made according to EN ISO 8596 and the recommendations of the International Research Council. RESULTS: In the mid-nineteenth century various reading cards were published; however, at that time it was not possible to print lower case letters according to exactly defined standards. Thus, these reading cards were not comparable to each other or between different language versions. At a reading distance of 32 cm Jaeger No. 1 represented in the original edition (1856) a visual acuity of 0.72 and 0.63 in the version from 1945 and the smallest print size of the Snellen reading test (1862) represented 0.55. Nieden No. 1 (1882) corresponded to a visual acuity of 0.59 and the smallest print size of the Birkhäuser cards (1911) 1.5. In the case of all reading cards except the original Birkhäuser cards, there was no logarithmic progression of the print sizes and the sizes of numbers were also not in accordance with the corresponding letter sizes. CONCLUSION: Print sizes of historical reading charts do not adhere to current standards and were usually not logarithmically scaled. These deficits and the lack of comparability between the historical reading charts may have caused reading cards to be currently underestimated as an accurate diagnostic tool. Nevertheless, the historical reading charts were the successful forerunners of developments for modern reading charts.

Historical note on distance test charts and projectors.

The first documented letter distance test charts appeared in the 19th century. The first electronic projectors for eye and vision examination arrived in the early 20th century. This paper comments on some of those and other developments in distance testing charts and projectors. Brief biographical information is given on some of the inventors of projector systems.

An eye chart for Edgar Degas.

The French Impressionist painter Edgar Degas had progressive visual loss from a type of maculopathy during the last 40 years of his life. The effects of this visual failure are evident in a comparison of early and later pastels, which shows a loss of precision in outlining, shading, and detail over the years. A remarkable oil painting, Scene from the Steeplechase: The Fallen Jockey, provides on one canvas an historical record of his visual struggles. It was begun in 1866 and reworked in 1880 and 1897, during which his visual acuity fell from near normal to 20/200. Computer simulations show Degas' own view of this painting at each of these times and demonstrate how his style changed: details became rougher and larger in correspondence with his failing acuity. The painting is an eye chart of his career.

A historical review of distance vision screening eye charts: what to toss, what to keep, and what to replace.

Vision screening protocol and equipment guidelines differ among schools across the United States. Budget cuts are forcing many school nurses to reevaluate their vision screening programs, as well as items in their vision screening toolboxes. School nurses tasked with inventorying those toolboxes to determine which items to toss, keep, or replace are oftentimes perplexed by the copious choices featured in vendor catalogs and websites. For school nurses who want their vision screening toolboxes to include eye charts, national and international eye chart design guidelines are available to help ensure selected eye charts are standardized. A national consensus policy exists that recommends specific eye charts. And, a large body of vision screening literature is available to help school nurses make informed decisions. Current documents suggest that LEA Symbols are appropriate for young children and Sloan Letters are a better choice than "Snellen" charts for older children.

A history of perimetry and visual field testing.

Perimetry and visual field testing have been used as clinical ophthalmic diagnostic tools for many years, and this manuscript will provide a brief historical overview of these procedures and the individuals who developed them. Today, we have many different forms of perimetry that are designed to evaluate different locations within the visual pathways and various mechanisms and subsets of mechanisms within the visual system. However, the most widely used method of performing perimetry and visual field testing has not substantially changed for more than 150 years, consisting of detecting a small target superimposed on a uniform background at different locations within the field of view. Although the basic test procedure has remained similar throughout the ages, there have been many advances in test administration, standardization, statistical evaluation, clinical analysis, interpretation, and prediction of outcome based on visual field findings.

From visual performance to visual ergonomics: a personal historic view.

During the author's active time in vision research a change in attitude took place from 'visual performance' as a criterion to justify higher light levels, to 'visual ergonomics' as a more comprehensive approach to improve visual work conditions. Some personal memories of this transition period may serve as a historic framework.

An ancient eye test--using the stars.

Vision testing in ancient times was as important as it is today. The predominant vision testing in some cultures was the recognition and identification of constellations and celestial bodies of the night sky. A common ancient naked eye test used the double star of the Big Dipper in the constellation Ursa Major or the Big Bear. The second star from the end of the handle of the Big Dipper is an optical double star. The ability to perceive this separation of these two stars, Mizar and Alcor, was considered a test of good vision and was called the "test" or presently the Arab Eye Test. This article is the first report of the correlation of this ancient eye test to the 20/20 line in the current Snellen visual acuity test. This article describes the astronomy, origin, history, and the practicality of this test and how it correlates with the present day Snellen visual acuity test.

A brief history of macular grids: from Thomas Reid to Edvard Munch and Marc Amsler.

Metamorphopsia is a symptom of retinal distortion from intrinsic retinal disease. It has undoubtedly been experienced for millennia, but its clinical significance has been appreciated only in modern times. The Norwegian painter Edvard Munch recognized scotomas and metamorphopsia after suffering an intraocular hemorrhage in his 60th year. Drawings made during this illness show his changing perceptions, and also his attempts to document them with a grid of lines. The Scottish philosopher Thomas Reid may have been the first to write about metamorphopsia. He described distortion of his vision in 1764, after an episode of sungazing, and recognized that the problem was probably of retinal origin. Lines or grids to document metamorphopsia have appeared in ophthalmology textbooks for more than 100 years, but testing for macular degeneration did not become routine until the dissemination of Amsler's grids in the middle of the 20th century. This is in large measure a result of developments in ophthalmology that made therapy for macular disease possible.

Eduard Jaeger's Test-Types (Schrift-Scalen) and the historical development of vision tests.

PURPOSE: Eduard Jaeger's original Test-Types were carefully evaluated: (1) to determine whether Jaeger had maintained a consistent standard, (2) to establish the correct Snellen equivalent for Jaeger's Test-Types, (3) to answer the question of why and how the standard was lost, and (4) to compare the visual angle of optotypes to lines of continuous text. METHODS: All original Viennese editions of Jaeger's Test-Types, as well as first generation United Kingdom (UK) and United States (US) versions, were evaluated. Data were collected objectively using a microruler with a 20X loupe and subjectively using a laser distance-measuring device. The data were analyzed using Microsoft Excel. All previous measurements of Jaeger's Test-Types, objective and subjective, collected over the past 133 years were compared to the current data and to each other. RESULTS: The correct Snellen equivalent of Jaeger's Test-Types was determined. The visual angle created from the measurement of the height of lowercase letters, without ascenders or descenders, provides an accurate method of assigning a visual angle of a line of continuous text. Comparing the typefaces used in printing first generation UK and US versions of Jaeger's Test-Types to the Viennese editions provided an explanation for the absence of a consistent standard for Jaeger's Test-Types today. CONCLUSIONS: All 10 versions of Jaeger's original Test-Types are virtually identical and established a gold standard for reading vision tests. Jaeger's standard was lost when his Test-Types were first printed in the UK and the US using local typefaces. The Jaeger standard has been re-established. Visual angles determined using continuous text are comparable to those obtained by using optotypes.

Armaignac's 1906 paper on the recording of visual acuity and the progression of letter sizes on visual acuity charts.

BACKGROUND: Henry Armaignac, a French ophthalmologist in the early twentieth century, criticized the Monoyer optometric scale, which was used to measure visual acuity. METHODS: This article discusses the "optometric scale" for visual acuity letter sizes proposed by Armaignac in a 1906 publication. CONCLUSION: Armaignac pointed out the flaws of the Monoyer visual acuity chart commonly used in France at the time and suggested an improvement in the progression of letter sizes on the chart.