O estatuto jurídico das águas no Brasil / The legal status of the waters in Brazil

Para construir o desenho do Estatuto Jurídico das Águas no Brasil, foram pesquisadas e analisadas as normas jurídicas internacionais e nacionais que tratam direta ou indiretamente das águas, com enfoque na identificação, nessas normas, dos seguintes elementos: i) grau de reconhecimento jurídico formal da água como um direito humano fundamental no Brasil e no direito internacional; ii) regime constitucional das águas no Brasil; iii) natureza jurídica das águas no direito interno e; iv) garantias jurídicas para a proteção do direito à água. A pesquisa, qualitativa, foi realizada nas páginas oficiais do governo brasileiro e da Organização das Nações Unidas, e as normas selecionadas e analisadas foram aquelas vigentes e que apresentam conteúdo relevante para a construção teórica do Estado Jurídico das Águas.

To build the design of the Legal Status of Water in Brazil, international and national legal standards that address directly or indirectly the waters were researched and analyzed, focusing on the identification of the following elements: i) degree of formal and legal recognition of water as a fundamental human right in Brazil and in international law; ii) constitutional regime of the waters in Brazil; iii) legal status of the waters in domestic law and; iv) legal guarantees to protect the right to water. The research, qualitative, was held in the official pages of the Brazilian government and the United Nations, and the selected laws were those presenting content relevant to the theoretical construction of the Legal Status of Water in Brazil.

Effect of postmining waters on cyanobacterial photosynthesis.

New waterbodies have been created in a postmining area of the brown-coal basin in Sokolov, Czech Republic. The former open-cast quarry, Medard, has been filling with water from a local river, the surrounding catchment spoil heaps, and acid mine drainages. The effect of acidic (pH down to 2.5) and high-conductivity water (up to 1400 mS/m) on selected cyanobacteria and the possibility of cyanobacterial water bloom in the newly formed Lake Medard were studied by means of chlorophyll fluorometry (actual photosystem II [PSII] quantum yield, ΔF/Fm', and relative electron transport rate, rETR). The acidic spoil-heap waters caused a decrease in cyanobacterial photosynthetic activity of 52 to 100% of the initial ΔF/Fm' value. The Dolichospermum strains were about 10 times more sensitive than Microcystis viridis. The high concentration of dissolved ions appeared to have less effect on cyanobacterial PSII. Although the bottom meta- and hypolimnion layers were proven to negatively influence the cyanobacteria, the perennial stratification of the lake does not enable the water characteristics of the upper layers to change extensively and thus possibly suppresses the undesirable cyanobacterial bloom. The response of cyanobacteria to spoil-heap waters appears to be species-specific and can promote selection of those resistant to postmining environments.

Holistic assessment of a secondary water supply for a new development in Copenhagen, Denmark.

Increasing stress on water resources is driving urban water utilities to establish new concepts for water supply. This paper presents the consequences of proposed alternative water supply options using a unique combination of quantitative and qualitative methods from different research fields. A former industrial harbor area in Copenhagen, Denmark, is currently under development and all infrastructure will be updated to accommodate 40,000 inhabitants and 40,000 jobs in the future. To reduce stress on water resources it has been proposed to establish a secondary water supply in the area as an alternative to the conventional groundwater-based drinking water supply. Four alternative concepts for a secondary water supply have been considered: 1) slightly polluted groundwater for use in toilets and laundry, 2) desalinated brackish water for use in toilets, laundry, and dishwashers, 3) desalinated brackish water for all uses, including drinking water, and 4) local reclamation of rain and gray water for use in toilets and laundry. The concepts have been evaluated for their technical feasibility, economy, health risks, and public acceptance, while the concepts' environmental sustainability has been assessed using lifecycle assessment and freshwater use impact methods. The holistic assessment method exposes conflicting preference solutions depending on assessment criteria, and reveals multi-faceted consequences for choices in urban water management. Not one concept turns out unambiguously positive based on the evaluation criteria included here, but the systematic evaluation will leave decision-makers informed on the consequences of their choices.

The added value of water footprint assessment for national water policy: a case study for Morocco.

A Water Footprint Assessment is carried out for Morocco, mapping the water footprint of different activities at river basin and monthly scale, distinguishing between surface- and groundwater. The paper aims to demonstrate the added value of detailed analysis of the human water footprint within a country and thorough assessment of the virtual water flows leaving and entering a country for formulating national water policy. Green, blue and grey water footprint estimates and virtual water flows are mainly derived from a previous grid-based (5 × 5 arc minute) global study for the period 1996-2005. These estimates are placed in the context of monthly natural runoff and waste assimilation capacity per river basin derived from Moroccan data sources. The study finds that: (i) evaporation from storage reservoirs is the second largest form of blue water consumption in Morocco, after irrigated crop production; (ii) Morocco's water and land resources are mainly used to produce relatively low-value (in US$/m3 and US$/ha) crops such as cereals, olives and almonds; (iii) most of the virtual water export from Morocco relates to the export of products with a relatively low economic water productivity (in US$/m3); (iv) blue water scarcity on a monthly scale is severe in all river basins and pressure on groundwater resources by abstractions and nitrate pollution is considerable in most basins; (v) the estimated potential water savings by partial relocation of crops to basins where they consume less water and by reducing water footprints of crops down to benchmark levels are significant compared to demand reducing and supply increasing measures considered in Morocco's national water strategy.

Rural:urban inequalities in post 2015 targets and indicators for drinking-water.

Disparities in access to drinking water between rural and urban areas are pronounced. Although use of improved sources has increased more rapidly in rural areas, rising from 62% in 1990 to 81% in 2011, the proportion of the rural population using an improved water source remains substantially lower than in urban areas. Inequalities in coverage are compounded by disparities in other aspects of water service. Not all improved sources are safe and evidence from a systematic review demonstrates that water is more likely to contain detectable fecal indicator bacteria in rural areas. Piped water on premises is a service enjoyed primarily by those living in urban areas so differentiating amongst improved sources would exacerbate rural:urban disparities yet further. We argue that an urban bias may have resulted due to apparent stagnation in urban coverage and the inequity observed between urban and peri-urban areas. The apparent stagnation at around 95% coverage in urban areas stems in part from relative population growth - over the last two decades more people gained access to improved water in urban areas. There are calls for setting higher standards in urban areas which would exacerbate the already extreme rural disadvantage. Instead of setting different targets, health, economic, and human rights perspectives, We suggest that the focus should be kept on achieving universal access to safe water (primarily in rural areas) while monitoring progress towards higher service levels, including greater water safety (both in rural and urban areas and among different economic strata).

A pragmatic approach to study the groundwater quality suitability for domestic and agricultural usage, Saq aquifer, northwest of Saudi Arabia.

The present study deals with detailed hydrochemical assessment of groundwater within the Saq aquifer. The Saq aquifer which extends through the NW part of Saudi Arabia is one of the major sources of groundwater supply. Groundwater samples were collected from about 295 groundwater wells and analyzed for various physico-chemical parameters such as electrical conductivity (EC), pH, temperature, total dissolved solids (TDS), Na(+), K(+), Ca(2+), Mg(2+), CO3 (-), HCO3 (-), Cl(-), SO4 (2-), and NO3 (-). Groundwater in the area is slightly alkaline and hard in nature. Electrical conductivity (EC) varies between 284 and 9,902 µS/cm with an average value of 1,599.4 µS/cm. The groundwater is highly mineralized with approximately 30 % of the samples having major ion concentrations above the WHO permissible limits. The NO3 (-) concentration varies between 0.4 and 318.2 mg/l. The depth distribution of NO3 (-) concentration shows higher concentration at shallow depths with a gradual decrease at deeper depths. As far as drinking water quality criteria are concerned, study shows that about 33 % of samples are unfit for use. A detailed assessment of groundwater quality in relation to agriculture use reveals that 21 % samples are unsuitable for irrigation. Using Piper's classification, groundwater was classified into five different groups. Majority of the samples show Mix-Cl-SO4- and Na-Cl-types water. The abundances of Ca(2+) and Mg(2+) over alkalis infer mixed type of groundwater facies and reverse exchange reactions. The groundwater has acquired unique chemical characteristics through prolonged rock-water interactions, percolation of irrigation return water, and reactions at vadose zone.

Validation of a full-scale membrane bioreactor and the impact of membrane cleaning on the removal of microbial indicators.

The removal of microbial indicators through a full-scale membrane bioreactor (MBR) was characterised. The overall log reduction of Escherichia coli and total coliforms were in the range of 5.0-5.9log10 units, while the reduction of clostridia was marginally less at 4.9log10 units. Removal of bacteriophage was in excess of 4.6log10 units. The impact of membrane cleaning on the elimination of microbial indicators was also assessed since this had been identified by pilot-scale studies as a potential hazardous event. Membrane cleaning temporarily reduced the log removal values of E. coli and total coliforms each by 1log10 unit, but did not affect the removal of bacteriophage or clostridia. Very little research has previously examined the consequences of hazardous events on the performance of full-scale MBRs, and thus the findings presented here will facilitate improvements for the risk assessment and management of MBRs used in water recycling schemes.

[New methodical approaches in the projection of zones of sanitary protection of water sources].

In the projection of sanitary protection zones of water sources it is extremely important to determine the specific boundaries of the established zones of sanitary protection due to the solution of property issues and responsibilities. In the paper projection of data with account of required scaling it is not possible to do. In this case, the use of geographic information systems is appropriate and useful. In addition there is necessary an adjustment of the existing sanitary calculations in relation to zones of sanitary protection of water sources in the part of specification of the order of approval of projects of sanitary protection zones and organization of the control for their implementation.

Exploring the links between antibiotic occurrence, antibiotic resistance, and bacterial communities in water supply reservoirs.

Antibiotic resistance represents a growing global health concern due to the overuse and misuse of antibiotics. There is, however, little information about how the selective pressure of clinical antibiotic usage can affect environmental communities in aquatic ecosystems and which bacterial groups might be responsible for dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) into the environment. In this study, chemical and biological characterization of water and sediments from three water supply reservoirs subjected to a wide pollution gradient allowed to draw an accurate picture of the concentration of antibiotics and prevalence of ARGs, in order to evaluate the potential role of ARGs in shaping bacterial communities, and to identify the bacterial groups most probably carrying and disseminating ARGs. Results showed significant correlation between the presence of ARG conferring resistance to macrolides and the composition of bacterial communities, suggesting that antibiotic pollution and the spreading of ARG might play a role in the conformation of bacterial communities in reservoirs. Results also pointed out the bacterial groups Actinobacteria and Firmicutes as the ones probably carrying and disseminating ARGs. The potential effect of antibiotic pollution and the presence of ARGs on the composition of bacterial communities in lacustrine ecosystems prompt the fundamental question about potential effects on bacterial-related ecosystem services supplied by lakes and reservoirs.

Preliminary risk assessment of radon in groundwater: a case study from Eskisehir, Turkey.

The aim of this study was to determine the radon concentrations in the water supplies of a residential area of central west Anatolia, Turkey. This research provides a preliminary risk assessment for inhabitants in the study area which can be applied for other regions. In 14 out of the 19 water supplies analysed, radon concentrations exceeded the maximum contaminant level (11.1 Bq l(-1)). The total annual effective doses of 10 for the wet season and 14 for the dry season out of the 19 water supplies are greater than the values recommended by EPA [Cancer Risk Coefficients for Environmental Exposure to Radionuclides, Federal Guidance Report No. 13 (US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, 1999) < http://www.epa.gov/rpdweb00/docs/federal/402-r-99-001.pdf >] (0.1 mSv a(-1)). The elevated radon concentrations in water resources are most probably linked with geological origin which contains significant amounts of radioactive minerals.

Assessment of heavy metals and their interrelationships with some physicochemical parameters in eco-efficient rivers of Himalayan region.

Most precious and world famed Himalayan rivers like Ganga, Yamuna, and their tributaries are originated from Uttarakhand state of India. Over the years, increased industrial activities and urban growth along the rivers and lakes have resulted in increased load over the water bodies. In the present study, a comparison of characteristics of water quality with respect to heavy metals (Fe, Zn, Cu, and Pb) and their interrelationships with some physiological parameters during different seasons of year 2010 has been made in the water bodies flowing through the two geographical regions, namely Garhwal and Kumaon regions of the Himalayan State of India. All observed values of Pb, 02 observation of the Cu, and 59 observations of Fe are found exceed with the WHO standard for drinking water; 83 observations of Pb, 110 observations of Cu, and 59 observations of Fe are found exceed with the Bureau of Indian Standards. However, none of the observation of Zn is found exceeding with the standard limit. Cu shows the highest concentration 7.30 mg/l among all observations and also its higher concentration in Kumaon rivers. All the metals show negative correlation with dissolved oxygen and pH. Fe in river Yamuna system and Zn in Kumaon rivers show significant temporal variations at 90 % level of significance (LOS). However, no significant temporal difference of remaining metals is observed even at 95 % LOS. All metals except Fe in river Yamuna system show very significant variation in spatial distribution in different river systems at 95 % LOS.

A solution to the water resources crisis in wetlands: development of a scenario-based modeling approach with uncertain features.

A scenario-based interval two-phase fuzzy programming (SITF) method was developed for water resources planning in a wetland ecosystem. The SITF approach incorporates two-phase fuzzy programming, interval mathematical programming, and scenario analysis within a general framework. It can tackle fuzzy and interval uncertainties in terms of cost coefficients, resources availabilities, water demands, hydrological conditions and other parameters within a multi-source supply and multi-sector consumption context. The SITF method has the advantage in effectively improving the membership degrees of the system objective and all fuzzy constraints, so that both higher satisfactory grade of the objective and more efficient utilization of system resources can be guaranteed. Under the systematic consideration of water demands by the ecosystem, the SITF method was successfully applied to Baiyangdian Lake, which is the largest wetland in North China. Multi-source supplies (including the inter-basin water sources of Yuecheng Reservoir and Yellow River), and multiple water users (including agricultural, industrial and domestic sectors) were taken into account. The results indicated that, the SITF approach would generate useful solutions to identify long-term water allocation and transfer schemes under multiple economic, environmental, ecological, and system-security targets. It can address a comparative analysis for the system satisfactory degrees of decisions under various policy scenarios. Moreover, it is of significance to quantify the relationship between hydrological change and human activities, such that a scheme on ecologically sustainable water supply to Baiyangdian Lake can be achieved.

[Medico-ecological approaches to the integrated management of water resources].

The necessity of taking into account the interests of public health care informing and implementing solutions for water management has been substantiated. Scientific frameworks and regulatory sanitary legislative documents relating to various areas of water management have been considered. The possibilities and the importance of performing complex territory medical ecological forecasts of effects of changes in hydrological situation have been demonstrated.

Indicator-based water sustainability assessment - a review.

In the past few decades, there have been extensive efforts on measuring sustainability. One example is the development of assessment tools based on sustainability indicators. Several individuals and organisations have suggested various indices for assessing sustainability. This paper focuses on the review of water sustainability assessment using the indicator-based approach. It discusses major definitions of sustainable development that have been proposed and more specific concepts of sustainability based on sustainability principles and criteria. It then proceeds with the review of existing definitions, principles and guidelines on sustainable water resource management. The paper then explores elements of indicator-based water sustainability assessment. These elements include the selection of components and indicators, obtaining sub-index values, weighting schemes for components and indicators, aggregation of components and indicators, robustness analysis of the index, and interpretation of the final index value. These six elements are explored considering four existing water sustainability indices and two other sustainability indices that are thought to be useful for the development and use of water sustainability indices. The review presented in this paper on indicator-based water sustainability assessment can provide significant inputs to water stakeholders worldwide for using existing indices, for customising existing indices for their applications, and for developing new water sustainability indices. These indices can provide information on current conditions of water resources, including identifying all factors contributing to the improvement of water resources. This information can be used to communicate the current status of existing water resources to the wider community. Also, the water sustainability indices can be used to assist decision makers to prioritise issues, challenges and programmes related to water resource management.