Ten-year outcome of early childhood traumatic brain injury: Diffusion tensor imaging of the ventral striatum in relation to executive functioning.

PRIMARY OBJECTIVE: The long-term effects of TBI on verbal fluency and related structures, as well as the relation between cognition and structural integrity, were evaluated. It was hypothesized that the group with TBI would evidence poorer performance on cognitive measures and a decrease in structural integrity. RESEARCH DESIGN: Between a paediatric group with TBI and a group of typically-developing children, the long-term effects of traumatic brain injury were investigated in relation to both structural integrity and cognition. Common metrics for diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) were used as indicators of white matter integrity. METHODS AND PROCEDURES: Using DTI, this study examined ventral striatum (VS) integrity in 21 patients aged 10-18 years sustaining moderate-to-severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) 5-15 years earlier and 16 demographically comparable subjects. All participants completed Delis-Kaplan Executive Functioning System (D-KEFS) sub-tests. MAIN OUTCOMES AND RESULTS: The group with TBI exhibited lower fractional anisotropy (FA) and executive functioning performance and higher apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC). DTI metrics correlated with D-KEFS performance (right VS FA with Inhibition errors, right VS ADC with Letter Fluency, left VS FA and ADC with Category Switching). CONCLUSIONS: TBI affects VS integrity, even in a chronic phase, and may contribute to executive functioning deficits.

Occupational all-terrain vehicle deaths among workers 18 years and older in the United States, 1992-2007.

The objective of this study was to summarize basic information on the characteristics of work-related A TV deaths among civilian persons 18 years of age or older in the U.S. from 1992 through 2007. Work-related ATV death data were obtained through the Bureau of Labor Statistics' annual Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries. From 1992 to 2007, 297 work-related ATV deaths occurred among persons over 17 in the U.S. Ninety-two percent were male, 93% were white, 23% were ages 18 to 34, 51% were ages 35 to 64, and 26% were ages > or = 65. Half of the fatal incidents involved overturns resulting in head and chest injuries. Sixty percent of crashes occurred on farms and 20% occurred on highways. The fatality rate among agricultural production workers was significantly higher than the rates in all other industries. While more in-depth analysis of incident and exposure data for this growing problem will more clearly define personal risk and causal factors in the long term, in the short term, stronger emphasis must be placed on the development of prevention strategies, particularly focused on older workers in the agriculture production industry.

Impact of helmets on injuries to riders of all-terrain vehicles.

BACKGROUND: Although helmet use has been shown to be effective in reducing traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) due to motorcycle and bicycle crashes, it is unknown whether helmet use is associated with different injury patterns and severity for users of all-terrain vehicles (ATVs). OBJECTIVES: To compare likelihood of injury and death between helmeted and unhelmeted riders of ATVs. METHODS: The National Trauma Data Bank for years 2002-2006 was used to examine the records of 11 589 patients hospitalized for injuries resulting from ATV use. The likelihood of receiving a TBI diagnosis or a significant injury to other body regions and differences in injury severity and in-hospital mortality between helmeted and unhelmeted ATV riders were compared. RESULTS: After multivariable adjustment, compared with helmeted riders, unhelmeted riders were significantly more likely to sustain any TBI (OR 1.62, 95% CI 1.49 to 1.76, p<0.001) and major/severe TBI (OR 3.19, 95% CI 2.39 to 4.25, p<0.001). Unhelmeted riders were significantly more likely to die while in hospital than were helmeted riders (OR 2.58, 95% CI 1.79 to 3.71, p<0.001). Significant injuries to the neck and face regions were also significantly more likely in unhelmeted riders (OR 3.53, 95% CI 1.28 to 9.71, p = 0.015, and OR 1.94, 95% CI 1.32 to 2.84, p = 0.001, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: ATV riders who do not wear helmets are more likely to receive significant injuries to the head, face, and neck. Prevention strategies and enforceable policy interventions to increase helmet use among ATV riders appear warranted.

Emergency department screening for risk for post-traumatic stress disorder among injured children.

OBJECTIVE: To discuss the successes and challenges associated with the implementation of a post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) screening tool in two pediatric emergency departments (ED). METHODS: The STEPP screening tool has been developed previously on an inpatient population of motor vehicle trauma patients. It was applied here to the general ED population at two different pediatric trauma centers. Nurse screeners were trained and a convenience sample of patients with unintentional injuries who met study criteria were screened in the ED. Feedback from nurse screeners was obtained. RESULTS: The process of implementing a screening tool to identify patients and their families significantly at risk for PTSD symptomatology presented some barriers, but overall acceptability of the process was high for both the emergency department staff and the patient. Recommendations for others considering implementation of screening programs in the ED are offered. CONCLUSIONS: Future research using screening protocols in the ED should, in their design, attempt to capitalize on the successes identified in the current protocol and circumvent barriers also encountered.

All-terrain vehicle injury in children: strategies for prevention.

OBJECTIVE: A variety of educational efforts, policies, and regulations have been adopted to reduce all-terrain vehicle (ATV) injury in children. Despite this, ATV use by children continues and serious injuries are common. The purpose of this study was to investigate the knowledge, practices, and beliefs of ATV users to help develop effective educational strategies to promote safer ATV use. DESIGN: Focus groups were conducted to characterize participant ATV use and safety awareness as well as to explore avenues for prevention. Feedback on draft ATV safety public service announcements was elicited. Themes of transcribed focus group data were summarized. SETTING: Rural state with high ATV use and injury rates. SUBJECTS: Adult and adolescent ATV users. INTERVENTIONS: None. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Summaries of focus group discussions. RESULTS: ATV riders frankly discussed current use and safety behaviors and were aware of some ATV risks. Youths felt that age specific regulation was unlikely to be a helpful strategy. Participants endorsed messages demonstrating graphic consequences as likely to get the attention of young riders regarding risks. Educational settings were suggested, including hunter and driver safety classes. CONCLUSIONS: Efforts to improve ATV safety awareness should clearly show pediatric ATV injury risk and safety practices. Campaigns must also show realistic understanding of current use practices to be credible for users. Messages emphasizing the consequences of ATV use were endorsed as most likely to have impact. Approaches based on age based restrictions were considered unrealistic and alternative strategies were suggested.

Impact of a waiting room videotape message on parent attitudes toward pediatric antibiotic use.

OBJECTIVE: To reduce the injudicious use of antibiotics, we developed an educational strategy that focused on parents of pediatric patients and their physicians. METHODS: This intervention was conducted in 5 pediatric practices in Arkansas during a 9-month period. Baseline data on parent attitudes about antibiotics and physician practice habits were measured by questionnaire. During the following 36 weeks, an educational videotape about the judicious use of antibiotics was played in waiting rooms. The videotape on antibiotics used a standard script based on the recommendations of the American Academy of Pediatrics. The physicians and staff at each site were actors in the videotape. During week 2 and week 36 of videotape use, parent attitudes were measured again. After the baseline week, the physicians and staff in each site were provided a standard in-service review of the American Academy of Pediatrics recommendations for judicious use of antibiotics. A study nurse recruited patients, administered questionnaires, and reviewed charts on-site. RESULTS: Parents who were exposed to the videotape were significantly less inclined to seek antibiotics for viral infections. Passively provided pamphlets were not read. No significant change in antibiotic prescribing by physicians was seen. CONCLUSION: Parent-focused passive education tools are effective at changing parent attitudes toward the use of antibiotics. Although physicians have blamed parent attitudes and demands for the overuse of antibiotics, changes in parent attitudes in this study were not associated with changes in prescribing rates. Changes in parent attitudes may be necessary but do not seem sufficient for changes in antimicrobial prescribing patterns.

Advocating for children's health at the state level: lessons learned.

This article documents the successful creation and promotion of a bill to fund a nurse home visitation program for high-risk mothers in Arkansas. It illustrates several key factors in successful advocacy by pediatricians working in an academic setting: a realistic time commitment; a community needs assessment, data assimilation, and review of existing resources; the identification and incorporation of stakeholders; a narrow focus on the area of greatest need; the backing of political partners; and favorable opportunities to advance child health issues.

Variation in therapy and outcome for pediatric head trauma patients.

OBJECTIVE: This study was undertaken to examine variation in therapies and outcome for pediatric head trauma patients by patient characteristics and by pediatric intensive care unit. Specifically, the study was designed to examine severity of illness on admission to the pediatric intensive care unit, the therapies used during the pediatric intensive care unit stay, and patient outcomes. DATA SOURCES AND SETTING: Consecutive admissions from three pediatric intensive care units were recorded prospectively (n = 5,749). For this study, all patients with an admitting diagnosis of head trauma were included (n = 477). Data collection occurred during an 18-month period beginning in June 1996. All of the pediatric intensive care units were located in children's hospitals, had residency and fellowship training programs, and were headed by a pediatric intensivist. METHODS: Admission severity was measured as the worst recorded physiological derangement during the period 1 yr old (16.1% vs. 6.1%; p = .002). Comparisons by insurance status indicated that observed mortality rates were highest for self-paying patients. However, patient characteristics were not associated with use of therapies or standardized mortality rates after adjustment for patient severity. There was significant variation in the use of paralytic agents, seizure medications, induced hypothermia, and intracranial pressure monitoring on admission across the three pediatric intensive care units. In multivariate models, only the use of seizure medications was associated significantly with reduced mortality risk (odds ratio = 0.17; 95% confidence interval = 0.04-0.70; p = .014). CONCLUSIONS: Therapies and outcomes vary across pediatric intensive care units that care for children with head injuries. Increased use of seizure medications may be warranted based on data from this observational study. Large randomized controlled trials of seizure prophylaxis in children with head injury have not been conducted and are needed to confirm the findings presented here.

Long-term predictable nipple projection following reconstruction.

The creation of the nipple-areola complex is often the final step in the surgical treatment of breast cancer patients, and it consequently has important symbolic and aesthetic implications. Patient expectations and the need for symmetry make nipple projection a crucial aesthetic determinant of nipple reconstruction. We hypothesize that long-term nipple projection and shape can be achieved in a predictable fashion using the modified star dermal fat flap technique. Prospectively, 93 nipples were reconstructed by a single surgeon using a modified star dermal fat flap technique in 44 implant and 49 TRAM flap breast reconstructions. Flap dimensions (base diameter and flap length) were designed according to patient desire or to the base diameter and projection of the opposite breast nipple. A standardized, 3-month postoperative care regimen was observed in all patients. Nipple projection was assessed by the same observer at each follow-up examination. The average length of follow-up was 730 days (745 for TRAM reconstructions and 713 for implants). Consistently, an average of 41 percent of the intraoperative projection remained intact in both groups at final evaluation (SD 12 percent). The total flap length was strongly predictive of intraoperative and long-term projection (r = 0.64 and 0.86, p < 0.0001). Flap lengths ranged from 5.5 to 9.0 cm, and in a linear correlation, resulted in intraoperative projection of 1.0 to 2.1 cm, respectively, and long-term projection of 0.4 to 0.83 cm, respectively. Based on the linear relationship, every 1-cm increase in flap length could be expected to result in a 0.16-cm increase in projection. When controlled for flap length and intraoperative projection, there was no difference between TRAM and implant nipple reconstruction in predicting postoperative nipple projection. Intraoperative planning and execution are critical to achieve predictable nipple shape, size, and projection. The dimensions of the star dermal fat flap can be strategically modified to allow the surgeon predictable projection with a consistent 41-percent preservation of intraoperative nipple projection in both TRAM and implant patients at 2 years.

Functional outcome in children with multiple trauma without significant head injury.

OBJECTIVE: To assess functional outcome and describe disability at discharge in children who have had trauma without significant head injury. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort. SETTING: National Pediatric Trauma Registry, 1988-1994. PARTICIPANTS: Patients of ages 7 to 18 years with Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) 13 to 15 without significant anatomic head inJury. RESULTS: Functional Independence Measure (FIM) at discharge was used to assess patient outcome. There were 13,649 children meeting study criteria who had sustained 34,254 injuries. Fractures constituted 30% of all injuries. As measured by FIM, 1,522 (11.2%) patients had mild disability at discharge; 1,983 (14.5%) had moderate disability. After adjustment for age and injury severity, children with lower extremity fractures were more likely to be discharged with functional limitations than those without (relative risk, 5.43; 95% confidence interval: 5.06, 5.84). Of children with moderate disability at discharge, less than 50% were referred for rehabilitation evaluation and less than 25% for physical therapy. CONCLUSION: Functional dependence is present in a large proportion of injured children, even without significant head injury. Rehabilitation and other services may be underused in this population. Further study is required to fully assess the degree and duration of disability in these patients.

The mandibular foramen: an anatomic study and its relevance to the sagittal ramus osteotomy.

The sagittal split ramus osteotomy is the most commonly used procedure to reposition the mandible surgically. Because it is more technically difficult and associated with a higher incidence of complications compared with other mandibular osteotomies, thorough knowledge of the anatomy of the mandibular ramus is a prerequisite. Anatomic measurements related to the mandibular foramen were obtained from 57 formalin-preserved non-Asian hemimandibles. As shown in previous reports, great variability was noted in the position of the mandibular foramen. However, these studies utilized Asian mandibles with a clear discrepancy in key anatomic measurements in comparison with the authors' data. This brings into question the validity of these earlier studies when applying their data to non-Asian groups. The "fade-out" point of the internal oblique ridge was found not to be a reliable anatomic reference for placement of the horizontal osteotomy along the medial ramus. Thus, familiarity with the described relationships of the mandibular foramen will assist in performing properly a sagittal split of the ramus and will reduce the chance for an unfavorable split.

Minor head injury in children: current management practices of pediatricians, emergency physicians, and family physicians.

OBJECTIVE: To describe variation in the clinical management of minor head trauma in children among primary care and emergency physicians. DESIGN: A survey of pediatricians, family physicians, and emergency physicians drawn from a random sample of members of the American Academy of Pediatrics, the American Academy of Family Physicians, and the appropriate American Medical Association specialty listings, respectively. Physicians were given clinical vignettes describing children presenting with normal physical examination results after minor head trauma. Different clinical scenarios (brief loss of consciousness or seizures) were also presented. Information was gathered on initial and subsequent management steps most commonly used by the physician. RESULTS: Surveys were returned by 765 (51%) of 1500 physicians. Of these, 303 (40%) were pediatricians, 269 (35%) family practitioners, and 193 (25%) emergency physicians. For minor head trauma without complications, observation at home was the most common initial physician management choice (n = 547, 72%). Observation in office or hospital was chosen by 81 physicians (11%). Head computed tomographic (CT) scan was chosen by 7 physicians (1%) and skull x-ray by 24 physicians (3%) as the first management option. Most physicians (n = 445, 80%) who initially chose observation at home would obtain a CT scan if the patient showed clinical deterioration. In the original scenario, if the patient had also sustained a loss of consciousness, 383 physicians (58%) altered management. Of these, 120 (18%) chose CT, 13 (2%) chose skull x-ray, 1 (1%) chose magnetic resonance imaging, 141 (21%) chose inpatient observation, and 125 (19%) chose a combination of CT scanning and observation. With seizures, 595 (90%) altered management, with 176 physicians (27%) choosing CT scan, 5 (1%) skull x-ray, 60 (9%) inpatient observation, and 299 (45%) a combination of radiological evaluation and observation. CONCLUSIONS: Most physicians surveyed chose clinic or home observation for initial management of minor pediatric head trauma. Clinical management was more varied when patients had sustained either loss of consciousness or seizures. Further study of the appropriate management of minor head trauma in children is needed to guide physicians in their care.

The effect of health maintenance organization vs commercial insurance status on obstetrical management and outcome.

OBJECTIVE: To compare obstetrical management and birth outcomes between patients with health maintenance organization (HMO) insurance and those with private commercial insurance. DESIGN: Retrospective population-based cohort study. SETTING: King County, Washington. PATIENTS: Among newborns delivered in 1992 and 1993, a random sample of 4000 birth records listing HMO insurance for prenatal care was compared with a random sample of 4000 birth records listing private commercial insurance as the primary coverage. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Use of ultrasonography and amniocentesis; rate of primary cesarean section performed; adequacy of prenatal care; incidence of maternal medical complications, low birth weight, and congenital malformations; and length of hospital stay. RESULTS: Women covered by HMO compared with commercial insurance were more likely to undergo ultrasonography (relative risk [RR], 1.4; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.3-1.4). Inadequate prenatal care was less frequent among HMO-insured patients (RR, 0.6; 95% CI, 0.5-0.7), as was the incidence of birth weight below 2500 g (RR, 0.7; 95% CI, 0.6-0.9). No differences in rates of cesarean section and congenital anomalies were observed. Among women without obstetrical risk factors, HMO-insured mothers were at an increased risk of labor and delivery complications (RR, 1.4; 95% CI, 1.3-1.5); their infants were at an increased risk of infant distress (RR, 1.8; 95% CI, 1.5-2.2). CONCLUSIONS: Patients with HMO insurance have improved access to prenatal care and screening when compared with privately insured patients. The reasons for increased risks of abnormal maternal and infant outcomes observed among a subset of HMO-insured patients are unclear. A study with more detailed prospective data collection is warranted.

Motorbike injuries in Bermuda: a risk for tourists.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To describe the incidence of injuries associated with motorbike use in Bermuda and discuss prevention strategies. METHODS: We conducted a population-based study of all incident of traffic accidents involving motorbikes. Demographic characteristics and mechanisms, rates, and outcomes of injury for tourists and residents were compared. RESULTS: We identified 657 cases of road trauma that occurred between July and September 1993. Of these cases, 538 (81.9%) involved motorbikes. The tourist rate of motorbike-related injury was 94.1/1,000 person-years at risk, whereas that of the local population was 16.6/1,000. The injury rate among residents was highest for young males, whereas among tourists it was highest among older persons. The relative risk (RR) of injury for tourists was 5.6 (95% confidence interval [CI], 4.8 to 6.7). Tourists also had an increased risk of fracture (RR, 1.43; 95% CI, 1.22 to 1.67). CONCLUSION: Tourists visiting Bermuda are at high risk of injury from motorbike use, with rates of injury much higher than the local population. Prevention strategies, particularly for older tourists, should be developed and implemented.

Telephone advice about an infant given by after-hours clinics and emergency departments.

AIMS: Studies have shown that telephone calls for advice constitute a significant portion of the workload of emergency departments in the United States and the United Kingdom. Reviews of the appropriateness of telephone advice given in emergency departments in the United States indicate that the information given is often inadequate or inaccurate. We performed a study to evaluate the telephone advice given in New Zealand. METHODS: We identified 30 public hospital emergency departments and 20 private accident and emergency clinics. Twenty-six towns and cities were represented. We telephoned each of them and requested advice about the management of a fictitious febrile infant. RESULTS: We were given medical advice by 36 of the centres. In the remaining 14 the caller was referred to an oncall duty doctor or general practitioner for further information. In the 36 departments providing advice, the information was given by a doctor in 5 of the cases, by a nurse in 26, and by a receptionist or unidentified respondent in 5. On average, the caller was asked 3.76 questions about the patient before advice was given. Even if a number of questions were asked, correct advice did not necessarily follow. Thirty five of the advice givers requested the age of the infant, but 16 of them gave inadequate advice despite this knowledge. We judged the advice given to be inadequate in 16 of the 36 institutions that provided it. There was no difference in the standard of advice given by private and public institutions. DISCUSSION: This study demonstrates that there are deficiencies in the quality of telephone advice given by emergency departments and private accident and emergency clinics in New Zealand.

Diverse effects of antiemetics in children.

AIMS: To present cases of dystonic reactions in paediatric patients related to the use of antiemetics and to remind practitioners of the potential hazards of these agents in the paediatric age group. METHOD: Discussion of the presentations of three children at the Middlemore Hospital emergency department with neurological symptoms after exposure to prochlorperazine or metoclopramide and one child with a possible phenothiazine ingestion. RESULTS: These cases illustrate that some physicians are unaware of the potential hazards of antiemetics in children. CONCLUSIONS: Physicians prescribing antiemetics for children presenting with viral gastroenteritis should carefully consider the risks and benefits of these medications. If the drugs are prescribed, instructions about possible side effects should be emphasised so that corrective treatment can be initiated promptly. A full drug history should be obtained on all patients presenting to emergency departments. In addition, the emergency physician evaluating children with unusual neurological symptoms should always consider the possibility of an acute extrapyramidal reaction.