Shivering and Stringhalt in horses.

Pelvic limb movement disorders unrelated to lameness or proprioceptive ataxia have been described in horses for centuries. The two best described are Shivering and Stringhalt. Shivering is unique in that it is primarily apparent when horses are asked to walk backward, without affecting forward gaits until quite advanced. Horses exhibit abduction and either hyperflexion or marked hyperextension of one or both pelvic limbs when walking backward, resulting in a pause at the peak of the stride cycle and reluctance to move backward. Generally, Stringhalt differs from Shivering in that it produces consistent hyperflexion without abduction in forward gaits including walk and trot. This review will focus on the two most common pelvic limb movement disorders, Shivering and Stringhalt, their clinical presentation, differential diagnosis, etiopathology, and treatment.

Epidemiology of shivering (shivers) in horses.

REASONS FOR PERFOMING STUDY: Investigating the epidemiology of shivering in horses. OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to characterise the signalment, clinical signs and management factors associated with shivering (also known as shivers), a relatively rare, poorly defined movement disorder in horses. STUDY DESIGN: Web-based case series survey and case-control study. METHODS: A Web-based survey was used to obtain information from owners, worldwide, who suspected that their horse had shivering. Survey respondents were asked to answer standardised questions and to provide a video of the horse. Authors reviewed the surveys and videos, and horses were diagnosed with shivering if they displayed normal forward walking, with difficulty during manual lifting of the hoof and backward walking due to hyperflexion or hyperextension of the pelvic limbs. Cases confirmed by video were designated 'confirmed shivering', while those with compatible clinical signs but lacking video confirmation were designated 'suspected shivering'. Owners of confirmed shivering horses were asked to provide information on 2 horses without signs of shivering (control group). RESULTS: Three hundred and five surveys and 70 videos were received; 27 horses were confirmed shivering (50 controls), 67 were suspected shivering and the rest had a variety of other movement disorders. Suspected shivering horses resembled confirmed shivering cases, except that the suspected shivering group contained fewer draught breeds and fewer horses with exercise intolerance. Confirmed shivering signs often began at <5 years of age and progressed in 74% of cases. Owner-reported additional clinical signs in confirmed cases included muscle twitching (85%), muscle atrophy (44%), reduced strength (33%) and exercise intolerance (33%). Shivering horses were significantly taller (confirmed shivering, mean ∼173 cm; control horses, ∼163 cm) with a higher male:female ratio (confirmed shivering, 3.2:1 vs. control, 1.7:1). No potential triggering factors or effective treatments were reported. CONCLUSIONS: Shivering is a chronic, often gradually progressive movement disorder that usually begins before 7 years of age and has a higher prevalence in tall male horses.

Posture and movement characteristics of forward and backward walking in horses with shivering and acquired bilateral stringhalt.

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: To investigate and further characterise posture and movement characteristics during forward and backward walking in horses with shivering and acquired, bilateral stringhalt. OBJECTIVES: To characterise the movement of horses with shivering (also known as shivers) in comparison with control horses and horses with acquired bilateral stringhalt. STUDY DESIGN: Qualitative video analysis of gait in horses. METHODS: Owners' and authors' videos of horses with shivering or stringhalt and control horses walking forwards and backwards and manually lifting their limbs were examined subjectively to characterise hyperflexion, hyperextension and postural abnormalities of the hindlimbs. The pattern and timing of vertical displacement of a hindlimb over one stride unit was evaluated among control, shivering and stringhalt cases. RESULTS: Gait patterns of shivering cases were characterised as follows: shivering-hyperextension (-HE, n = 13), in which horses subjectively showed hyperextension when backing and lifting the limb; shivering-hyperflexion (-HF, n = 27), in which horses showed hindlimb hyperflexion and abduction during backward walking; and shivering-forward hyperflexion (-FHF, n = 4), which resembled shivering-HF but included intermittent hyperflexion and abduction with forward walking. Horses with shivering-HF, shivering-FHF and stringhalt (n = 7) had a prolonged swing phase duration compared with control horses and horses with shivering-HE during backward walking. With the swing phase of forward walking, horses with stringhalt had a rapid ascent to adducted hyperflexion of the hindlimb, compared with a rapid descent of the hindlimb after abducted hyperflexion in horses with shivering-FHF. CONCLUSIONS: Shivering affects backward walking, with either HE or HF of hindlimbs, and can gradually progress to involve intermittent abducted hyperflexion during forward walking. Shivering-HF and shivering-FHF can look remarkably similar to acquired bilateral stringhalt during backward walking; however, stringhalt can be distinguished from shivering-HF by hyperflexion during forward walking and from shivering-FHF by an acute onset of a more consistent, rapidly ascending, hyperflexed, adducted hindlimb gait at a walk.

Presence of the glycogen synthase 1 (GYS1) mutation causing type 1 polysaccharide storage myopathy in continental European draught horse breeds.

The purpose of this study was to determine which continental European draught horse breeds harbour a mutation in the glycogen synthase 1 gene (GYS1) that is known to be responsible for type 1 polysaccharide storage myopathy in quarter horses and North American draught horses. Of a non-random selection of continental European draught horses belonging to 13 breeds, 62 per cent (250 of 403) tested were found to carry the mutant allele. The horses were located in Belgium, France, Germany, The Netherlands, Spain and Sweden. The mutation was identified in animals from each of the breeds examined. In the breeds in which more than 15 animals were available for testing, the highest percentages of GYS1-positive horses were found in the Belgian trekpaard (92 per cent; 35 of 38 horses tested), Comtois (80 per cent; 70 of 88), Netherlands trekpaard (74 per cent; 17 of 23), Rheinisch-Deutsches kaltblut (68 per cent; 30 of 44) and Breton (64 per cent; 32 of 51).

Basal ganglia calcification in BB/E rats with diabetes.

Human diabetes is associated with cognitive impairment and structural abnormalities in the brain such as cerebral atrophy. The aetiology of these abnormalities is not known. The BB/E rat is a well-established model of type 1 (insulin dependent) diabetes. A cohort of 34 BB/E rats with diabetes was divided into three sub-groups according to age (and duration of diabetes). Basal ganglia calcification (BGC) was present in the brains of more than 50% of diabetic animals, but not in any of 37 non-diabetic BB/E rats. BGC occurred more commonly in those animals which had the longest duration of diabetes (p=0.001), such that BGC was present in only 8% of animals with diabetes for 20 weeks, but in 100% of animals with diabetes for 60 weeks. There were no other significant light microscopic neuropathologic changes in diabetic animals. It will be important to investigate the mechanism of brain calcification, whether a similar process occurs in humans with diabetes, and its possible relationship to cognitive decline.

Emergence of Salmonella typhimurium definitive type 104 (DT104) as an important cause of salmonellosis in horses in Ontario.

Salmonella Typhimurium definitive type 104 (DT104) has emerged as a common cause of salmonellosis in humans and cattle, yet previous reports involving horses are sparse. This study reports the emergence of DT104 as an important pathogen in horses in Ontario. The first clinical case of DT104 infection at the Ontario Veterinary College was identified in 1997. Seventeen cases of DT104-associated salmonellosis were identified between 1997 and 2000. In 2000, 12 of 13 cases of salmonellosis were due to DT104. Salmonellosis in horses due to DT104 is of concern, since the organism is multiresistant to antibiotics and poses increased zoonotic risk. Phage type distribution of Salmonella isolates should be monitored to determine whether DT104 will remain a prevalent equine pathogen.

Tissue ascorbic acid and polyol pathway metabolism in experimental diabetes.

Previous studies demonstrating reduced plasma concentrations of ascorbic acid (AA) in diabetes and interactions between this vitamin and biochemical mechanisms such as synthesis of structural proteins, oxidative stress, polyol pathway and nonenzymatic glycation of proteins suggest that disturbed AA metabolism may be important in the pathogenesis of diabetic microangiopathy. However, limited information is available on the concentration of AA in tissues which develop diabetic complications. This study demonstrates reduced renal but not sciatic nerve or plasma AA concentration in two animal models of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, namely the STZ-diabetic rat and the spontaneously diabetic BB rat. Decreased lens AA concentration was also observed in STZ-diabetic rats. Improvement of glycaemic control by insulin treatment (albeit insufficient to achieve normoglycaemia) partially corrected lens and renal AA concentration in STZ-diabetic rats. AA treatment increased kidney and lens AA concentrations of STZ-diabetic and non-diabetic rats and corrected the abnormalities observed for untreated diabetic rats. Sciatic nerve AA concentration was not increased by AA treatment in any group. Tissue ratios of dehydroascorbic acid (DHAA)/AA, one index of oxidative stress, were not different between the diabetic and non-diabetic groups and were unaltered by AA supplementation. AA treatment of STZ-diabetic rats had no effect on elevated tissue concentrations of glucose, sorbitol and fructose or reduced myo-inositol concentration. The effect of reduced tissue AA levels in diabetes on either collagen synthesis or ability to combat increased free radical production is not known. However, correction of abnormal kidney and lens AA concentrations in experimental diabetes by AA supplementation suggests that if AA does have a role in the development or progression of the renal and ocular complications of diabetes, this treatment could be beneficial.

Tumor necrosis factor-alpha mRNA-positive cells in spontaneous resorption in rodents.

PROBLEM: It has been proposed that high rates of resorption/spontaneous abortion may result from interaction in the decidua of gamma-interferon-producing natural killer (NK) cells and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha-producing macrophages. An increased release of TNF-alpha from placental tissue of resorptions has been reported, but macrophages producing TNF-alpha have so far not been demonstrated at the feto-maternal interface. Therefore, we have sought to identify TNF-alpha-producing cells by in situ hybridization at the feto-maternal interface in two inbred, well-characterized, and stable strains of laboratory rodents with high and low resorption rates. METHOD OF STUDY: Pregnant DBA/2-mated CBA/J mice with a resorption rate of 20% to 30% (dependent on NK cells and macrophages) and diabetes-resistant Bio-Breeding/Edinburgh (DR-BB/E) rats with low resorption rates (presumed to result from chromosomal abnormalities) were studied. AsialoGM1+ cells were detected by immunohistochemistry, and TNF-alpha mRNA+ cells were detected by in situ hybridization. RESULTS: TNF-alpha mRNA+ cells were detected in DBA/2-mated CBA/J mice at the time of resorption but only at the trophoblast-decidual junction. AsialoGM1+ cells were present in decidua, as assessed by immunohistochemistry, but few if any gave a positive signal for TNF-alpha. In rat resorptions, TNF-alpha mRNA-positive cells were present within the yolk sac and in contact with the trophoblast, but not at the trophoblast-decidual junction. In neither species did a significant accumulation of detectable TNF-alpha mRNA+ cells occur before the usual time of onset of resorption. CONCLUSIONS: In the DBA/2-mated CBA/J mouse, the removal of the placenta is associated with removal of a thin rim of adherent decidua similar to the location of the TNF-alpha mRNA+ cells detected in this study. Our data suggest that increased TNF-alpha in tissues associated with failing feto-placental units may arise from infiltration/activation of scavenger cells from decidua that are likely to be macrophages. Local TNF-alpha production in decidua, which occurs as a prelude to resorption in the CBA x DBA/2 model, could not be detected due to the insensitivity of the TNF-alpha probe we used; the release of TNF-alpha from decidual tissue left after the removal of the placenta does not differ between resorbing and healthy implant sites. AsialoGM1+ cells did not seem to be major producers of TNF-alpha. TNF-alpha mRNA+ cells in a low rate of resorption (rat) model were only found on the fetal side of the trophoblast, and they may also represent a macrophage response (to dying embryo tissue) derived from a nondecidual source. The location of TNF-alpha mRNA+ cells may identify distinct and different mechanisms of resorption in rodents.

Retrospective study of toxic metal analyses requested at a veterinary diagnostic toxicology laboratory in Ontario (1990-1995).

During the 5-year period from January 1, 1990, to December 31, 1995, 887 diagnoses of metal toxicosis in domestic animals and wild birds were documented at the Veterinary Laboratory Services Branch of the Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs. Most of these cases involved cattle, sheep, and birds. Lead toxicosis was diagnosed in 399 cases, copper toxicosis in 387, zinc toxicosis in 49, mercury toxicosis in 44, iron toxicosis in 4, and selenium in 4 cases. Trends in species affected and sources of metals are discussed.

The effect of delta-gluconolactone, an oxidised analogue of glucose, on the nonenzymatic glycation of human and rat haemoglobin.

Nonenzymatic glycation of proteins and oxidative stress are considered independent factors important in the development of the complications of diabetes but may be interrelated by the process of autoxidative glycation. This pathway involves monosaccharide autoxidation to a reactive ketoaldehyde analogue and subsequent reaction with protein to form a ketoimine adduct. This study demonstrates that delta-gluconolactone (delta-GL), an oxidised analogue of glucose, is a potent glycating agent in vitro of haemoglobin present in blood samples from insulin-dependent diabetic and non-diabetic human subjects and from spontaneously diabetic, insulin-dependent BB/Edinburgh (BB/E) rats. The percentage glycated haemoglobin after incubation (37 degrees C, 5 h) with delta-GL (25 mmol/l) was significantly (P < 0.002) higher than that observed using an equimolar concentration of glucose. Intravenous administration of delta-GL (1 g/kg) to non-diabetic BB/E rats also significantly increased glycation of haemoglobin (6.0 +/- 0.1% vs 4.9 +/- 0.1%, P < 0.01) whereas intravenous injection of an identical dose of glucose had no significant effect (5.1 +/- 0.1% vs 5.0 +/- 0.2%). These results support the hypothesis that nonenzymatic glycation of proteins involves attachment by both native and oxidised monosaccharides. Further investigation of the interactions between diabetes-associated increases in oxidative stress and glycation on the development and progression of the vascular complications of diabetes is necessary.

Mutations in the hepatocyte nuclear factor-1alpha gene are a common cause of maturity-onset diabetes of the young in the U.K.

Mutations in the hepatocyte nuclear factor-1alpha (HNF1alpha) gene have recently been shown to cause maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY). We have examined 15 U.K. MODY families for mutations in the coding region of the HNF-1alpha gene. Eight different mutations, three frameshift (P291fsinsC, P379fsdelCT, and A443fsdelCA) and five missense mutations (P129T, R131W, R159W, P519L, and T620I), were identified in eleven families (73%). The previously reported mutation P291fsinsC was found in four pedigrees. A screen of a further 32 probands with early onset (<40 years of age) NIDDM showed the mutation in two additional families. This common mutation was present on at least three different haplotypes, suggesting that its high frequency is due to recurrent mutation rather than a founder effect. We have demonstrated that mutations in the HNF-1alpha gene are a common cause of MODY in U.K. families and result in early onset NIDDM with a progressive clinical course. Mutation-based genetic counseling can now be considered for the majority of patients with MODY.

In vivo and in vitro evidence of altered nitric oxide metabolism in the spontaneously diabetic, insulin-dependent BB/Edinburgh rat.

1. Altered vasoreactivity may contribute significantly to the pathogenesis of diabetic vascular complications. This study investigated the effect of (a) insulin-related diabetes, and (b) chronic in vivo administration of N(omega)-nitro-L-arginine ester (L-NAME), a nitric oxide (NO) synthase inhibitor, on mean arterial pressure and in vitro vascular reactivity to noradrenaline in mesenteric arterial bed preparations from spontaneously diabetic, insulin-dependent and treated BB rats, the best animal model of insulin-dependent mellitus (IDDM) currently available. Four groups of animals from the Edinburgh colony (BB/E) of spontaneous diabetic BB rats were studied: age-matched (mean +/- s.e. mean = 156 +/- 2d) non-diabetic (glycated haemoglobin = 3.8 +/- 0.1%) and insulin-treated diabetic (glycated haemoglobin = 6.2 +/- 0.5%; duration of diabetes = 56 +/- 4 d) groups were either L-NAME treated (oral dose = 27 +/- 1 mg kg-1 d-1; duration of treatment from 30 until 153 days of age) or untreated. Although our diabetic BB/E rats do not achieve overall normoglycaemia, individual adjustment of the daily insulin dose administered to every diabetic rat achieves better glycaemic control than previous groups studying altered vascular reactivity and endothelial dysfunction in this animal model of diabetes. 2. Mean arterial pressure (measured directly via indwelling carotid arterial cannulae) was not significantly different between non-diabetic (116 +/- 3 mmHg; n = 10) and diabetic (122 +/- 2 mmHg; n = 12) BB/E rats. L-NAME treatment significantly (P < 0.001) increased mean arterial pressure in both groups (165 +/- 6 mmHg; n = 9 and 142 +/- 4 mmHg; n = 6 respectively) but the degree of hypertension observed in L-NAME-treated diabetic rats was significantly (P < 0.01) attenuated compared to non-diabetic rats treated with L-NAME. 3. Mesenteric arterial bed preparations were cannulated under anesthesia, excised and intralumenally perfused ex vivo with noradrenaline (0.2-20 microM). Basal perfusion pressures were not significantly different in mesentery preparations from non-diabetic (27.0 +/- 2.6 mmHg) and diabetic (27.1 +/- 3.2 mmHg) BB/E rats. There was no significant difference in maximal response above basal perfusion pressure (MAX) or pEC50, defined as the negative log of the agonist concentration required to give 50% of the maximal response above basal perfusion pressure, to noradrenaline in untreated non-diabetic (166 +/- 7 mmHg and 5.74 +/- 0.05 respectively) and diabetic (170 +/- 11 mmHg and 5.59 +/- 0.05) BB/E rats. 4. In vivo treatment of non-diabetic and diabetic BB/E rats with L-NAME had no significant effect on basal perfusion pressure (25.9 +/- 4.3 mmHg and 28.5 +/- 3.9 mmHg respectively). L-NAME treatment in vivo increased (P < 0.001) MAX to noradrenaline of non-diabetic rats (224 +/- 8 mmHg) but did not affect the value for diabetic rats (178 +/- 14 mmHg). L-NAME treatment did not alter after the pEC50 values in either group (5.71 +/- 0.05 and 5.65 +/- 0.05). 5. Consistent with previous studies using vascular preparations from spontaneously diabetic BB rats, mesentery preparations from diabetic BB/E rats (n = 12) exhibited a significantly reduced vasodilator response to acetylcholine (F value = 4.4, P < 0.05) across the concentration range studied compared to non-diabetic BB/E rats (n = 12) although there was no significant difference in maximal relaxation (diabetic 53.1 +/- 4.3% vs non-diabetic 55.7 +/- 5.5%) or pEC50, (diabetic 6.92 +/- 0.25 vs non-diabetic 7.49 +/- 0.22). There was no significant (F value = 0.8, P > 0.1) difference in the response to GTN between preparations from non-diabetic and diabetic rats (maximal relaxation: 49.6 +/- 3.7% vs 48.5 +/- 4.3%; pEC50: 7.84 +/- 0.12 vs 7.89 +/- 0.22 respectively). 6. In conclusion, vascular responsiveness to noradrenaline is not impaired in spontaneously diabetic BB/E rats with significantly better glycaemic control than those used in previous studies. However, following chronic L-NAME treatment, diabetic BB/E rats exhibit attenuated hypertension and an absence of enhanced vascular responsiveness to noradrenaline in vitro compared to similarly treated non-diabetic rats. These results, together with the significantly impaired endothelium-dependent vasodilatation and unchanged endothelium-independent vasodilatation in vitro of preparations from diabetic BB/E rats, are consistent with the hypothesis that functional changes in the synthesis and metabolism of NO (rather than altered vascular responsiveness to NO) occur in diabetes. Our results indicate that good glycaemic control alone is insufficient to prevent these abnormalities in NO availability and further studies to characterize the origin of these changes are necessary.

Disturbed development of the preimplantation embryo in the insulin-dependent diabetic BB/E rat.

Although improved regulation of maternal IDDM during pregnancy has resulted in a major fall in the stillbirth rate, the rates for other problems, such as spontaneous preterm labor, fetuses small for gestational age, congenital malformation, and the incidence of large placentas, remain raised. This has suggested the possibility that the damaging effect of conventionally treated but poorly regulated IDDM may operate primarily at the earliest stages of gestation, even before the diagnosis of pregnancy has been made. This study shows that spontaneous autoimmune IDDM in the Bio Breeding/Edinburgh (BB/E) rat is associated with severe disturbance in the development of the preimplantation embryo in a majority of pregnancies, as indicated by a fivefold increase in the incidence of degenerate fragmented embryos and a 33% reduction in the number of expanded blastocysts and in those blastocysts that reach the expanded stage a 20% cellular deficit in the inner-cell mass without any change in trophectoderm cell number. In addition, we find that blastocysts removed from diabetic rats and cultured in vitro for 24 h show no sign of "catch-up" growth of the inner-cell mass, although under these conditions, the trophectoderm exhibits a 25% cellular accretion. It is tempting to speculate that these phenomena are a presage of the characteristic combination of fetal growth retardation and large placentas, which are a feature of both BB/E rat and human IDDM pregnancy.

Candidate gene studies in pedigrees with maturity-onset diabetes of the young not linked with glucokinase.

Maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY) is a form of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus characterised by an early age of onset and an autosomal dominant mode of inheritance. Only a proportion of cases are due to mutations in the glucokinase gene. We have studied five Caucasian MODY families, including the first MODY family to be described, with five candidate genes implicated in regulation of insulin secretion. The affected subjects showed more marked hyperglycaemia than that found in subjects with glucokinase mutations. We assessed polymorphic markers close to the genes for glucokinase, hexokinase II, adenosine deaminase, pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide receptor, and glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor. Linkage analysis with diabetes gave cumulative log of the odds (LOD) scores of less than -3, implying that mutations in these genes are unlikely to provide a major genetic contribution to this form of MODY.

Reduced diurnal variation of blood pressure in non-insulin-dependent diabetic patients with microalbuminuria.

In essential hypertension reduced diurnal blood pressure (BP) variation is associated with an increased prevalence of target organ damage. We have examined diurnal BP variation in 25 microalbuminuric (MA) and 19 normoalbuminuric (NMA) patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes and related albumin excretion rate (AER) to diurnal BP variation in the microalbuminuric group. There were no significant differences in age, body mass index (BMI), renal function, diabetic control, clinic or daytime ambulatory BP between the groups. Night-time SBP was higher (MA 145 mm Hg (137-153), NMA 132 mm Hg (125-139); P = 0.019) in the microalbuminuric group while the diurnal variation as assessed by the day-night dip in BP was significantly reduced in the microalbuminuric group (systolic: (mean (95% confidence intervals) MA 4.7% (1.7-7.7), NMA 12.8% (9.5-16.0), p = 0.001; diastolic: MA 6.5% (3.0-10.0), NMA 14.5% (10.2-18.8), P = 0.007). Within the microalbuminuric group, the systolic dip in BP was inversely related to the AER (r = -0.48, P = 0.015). Reduced diurnal BP variation and high night-time BP may contribute to target organ damage in diabetes.

N omega-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester reduces the incidence of IDDM in BB/E rats.

Evidence that nitric oxide (NO) is involved in cytokine-mediated islet beta-cell dysfunction and destruction in vitro has led to the hypothesis that increased production of NO may contribute to the pathogenesis of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM). This study demonstrates that oral administration of N omega-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (an inhibitor of NO synthase) from 30 to 150 days of age significantly reduced (P < 0.05) the incidence of IDDM in diabetes-prone BB/E rats. This supports the idea that NO plays a significant role in the pathogenesis of IDDM in this animal model.

Tetanus in the horse: a review of 20 cases (1970 to 1990).

The case records of 20 horses with tetanus referred to the Ontario Veterinary College-Veterinary Teaching Hospital between 1970 and 1990 were reviewed. The fatality rate was 75%. There was a strong association with previous vaccination and survival (P = .03). Most of the animals had been injured an average of 9 days (range 2 to 21 days) prior to development of clinical signs. Hyperesthesia and prolapse of the third eyelid were the most common clinical signs. Treatment regimens varied during hospitalization; however, all horses received parenteral penicillin, tranquilizers, tetanus toxoid, and antitoxin. Five of the nonsurviving animals were given intrathecal tetanus antitoxin. One animal had seizures as a complication of intrathecal treatment. The prognosis was best for horses that (1) had been vaccinated prior to the injury, (2) responded to the phenothiazine tranquilizers, and (3) did not rapidly (over 24 to 48 hours) become recumbent. Considering the species susceptibility, potential for contaminated wounds, and the increased survival of vaccinated horses, yearly revaccination is recommended.