Some Possibilities to Study New Prophylactics against Nerve Agents.

Nerve agents belong to the most dangerous chemical warfare agents and can be/were misused by terrorists. Effective prophylaxis and treatment is necessary to diminish their effect. General principles of prophylaxis are summarized (protection against acetylcholinesterase inhibition, detoxification, treatment "in advance" and use of different drugs). They are based on the knowledge of mechanism of action of nerve agents. Among different examinations, it is necessary to test prophylactic effectivity in vivo and compare the results with protection in vitro. Chemical and biological approaches to the development of new prophylactics would be applied simultaneously during this research. Though the number of possible prophylactics is relatively high, the only four drugs were introduced into military medical practice. At present, pyridostigmine seems to be common prophylactic antidote; prophylactics panpal (tablets with pyridostigmine, trihexyphenidyl and benactyzine), transant (transdermal patch containing HI-6) are other means introduced into different armies as prophylactics. Scavenger commercionally available is Protexia®. Future development will be focused on scavengers, and on other drugs either reversible cholinesterase inhibitors (e.g., huperzine A, gallantamine, physostigmine, acridine derivatives) or other compounds.

Transdermal drug delivery in vitro using diffusion cells.

The assessment of percutaneous absorption of molecules is a very important step in the evaluation of any dermal or transdermal drug delivery system. In order to perform percutaneous drug absorption studies, it is essential that the methods are standardized and that the integrity of the skin is monitored and maintained to ensure that the data obtained are valid and relevant. Reproducible data on percutaneous absorption in humans are as well required to predict the systemic risk from dermal exposure to chemicals, such as hazardous substances at the workplace, agrochemicals and cosmetic ingredients. In vitro and animal models provide important tools for screening a series of drug formulations, evaluation of skin permeation enhancing properties and mechanism of action of the carrier systems and estimation of rank of skin transport for a series of drug molecules. In this review, we have summarized in vitro testing of skin absorption using static Franz-type diffusion cells.

Two possibilities how to increase the efficacy of antidotal treatment of nerve agent poisonings.

Highly toxic organophosphorus inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase referred as nerve agents are considered to be among the most dangerous chemical warfare agents. The oximes represent very important part of medical countermeasures of nerve agent poisonings. They are used to reactivate the nerve agent-inhibited acetylcholinesterase. Despite long-term research activities, there is no single, broad-spectrum oxime suitable for the antidotal treatment of poisoning with all organophosphorus agents. There are two approaches how to increase and broaden the effectiveness of antidotal treatment of poisoning with nerve agents - to develop new structural analogues of currently available oximes and/or to combine currently available or newly developed oximes. The review describes the evaluation of the potency of newly developed oximes (especially the oxime K203) or combinations of oximes to reactivate nerve agent-inhibited acetylcholinesterase and to counteract the acute toxicity of nerve agents in comparison with single commonly used oxime (obidoxime, trimedoxime or HI-6).

Potency of several oximes to reactivate human acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase inhibited by paraoxon in vitro.

Organophosphorus pesticides (e.g. chlorpyrifos, malathion, and parathion) and nerve agents (sarin, tabun, and VX) are highly toxic organophosphorus compounds with strong inhibition potency against two key enzymes in the human body-acetylcholinesterase (AChE; EC 3.1.1.7) and butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE; EC 3.1.1.8). Subsequent accumulation of acetylcholine at synaptic clefts can result in cholinergic crisis and possible death of intoxicated organism. For the recovery of inhibited AChE, derivatives from the group of pyridinium or bispyridinium aldoximes (called oximes) are used. Their efficacy depends on their chemical structure and also type of organophosphorus inhibitor. In this study, we have tested potency of selected cholinesterase reactivators (pralidoxime, obidoxime, trimedoxime, methoxime and H-oxime HI-6) to reactivate human erythrocyte AChE and human plasma BuChE inhibited by pesticide paraoxon. For this purpose, modified Ellman's method was used and two different concentrations of oximes (10 and 100 microM), attainable in the plasma within antidotal treatment of pesticide intoxication were tested. Results demonstrated that obidoxime (96.8%) and trimedoxime (86%) only reached sufficient reactivation efficacy in case of paraoxon-inhibited AChE. Other oximes evaluated did not surpassed more than 25% of reactivation. In the case of BuChE reactivation, none of tested oximes surpassed 12.5% of reactivation. The highest reactivation efficacy was achieved for trimedoxime (12.4%) at the concentration 100 microM. From the data obtained, it is clear that only two from currently available oximes (obidoxime and trimedoxime) are good reactivators of paraoxon-inhibited AChE. In the case of BuChE, none of these reactivators could be used for its reactivation.

Inhibition of blood cholinesterases following intoxication with VX and its derivatives.

Nerve agents can be divided into G-agents (sarin, soman, tabun, cyclosarin etc.) and V-agents. The studies dealing with V-agents (O-alkyl S-2-dialkylaminoethyl methyl phosphonothiolates) are limited to one or two representatives only (VX, Russian VX). Anticholinesterase properties of 11 V-agents were studied in rats in vivo. Following intoxication with these agents in doses of 1 x LD(50) (intramuscular administration), activities of cholinesterases in the blood were continuously monitored and half-lives (t(0.5)) of inhibition were determined. These values varied from 3 min (VX and some other agents) to 10-14 min (derivatives substituted on the phosphorus head by O-ethyl- or O-isopropyl-, and by dimethyl-, diethyl- and dibutyl- on the nitrogen). Acetylcholinesterase activities in selected parts of the brain and diaphragm (30 min after the intoxication) were also detected. A correlation between toxicities and rates of inhibition of the blood enzymes was demonstrated. A similar relationship between acetylcholinesterase inhibition in vitro (from literature data) and half-lives of the blood cholinesterases was also observed. Though the chemical similarity of V compounds is evident, marked differences were observed among different derivatives; however, all agents examined had high inhibition potency corresponding to their toxicities.

Cholinesterase reactivators: the fate and effects in the organism poisoned with organophosphates/nerve agents.

Understanding the mechanism of action of organophosphates (OP)/nerve agents -- irreversible acetylcholinesterase (AChE, EC 3.1.1.7) inhibition at the cholinergic synapses followed by metabolic dysbalance of the organism -- two therapeutic principles for antidotal treatment are derived. The main drugs are anticholinergics that antagonize the effects of accumulated acetylcholine at the cholinergic synapses and cholinesterase reactivators (oximes) reactivating inhibited AChE. Anticonvulsants such as diazepam are also used to treat convulsions. Though there are experimental data on a good therapeutic effects of reactivators, some attempts to underestimate the role of reactivators as effective antidotes against OP poisoning have been made. Some arguments on the necessity of their administration following OP poisoning are discussed. Their distribution patterns and some metabolic and pharmacological effects are described with the aim to resolve the question on their effective use, possible repeated administration in the treatment of OP poisoning, their peripheral and central effects including questions on their penetration through the blood brain barrier as well as a possibility to achieve their effective concentration for AChE reactivation in the brain. Reactivation of cholinesterases in the peripheral and central nervous system is described and it is underlined its importance for the survival or death of the organism poisoned with OP. Metabolization and some other effects of oximes (not connected with AChE reactivation) are discussed (e.g. forming of the phosphonylated oxime, parasympatholytic action, hepatotoxicity, behavioral changes etc.). An universality of oximes able to reactivate AChE inhibited by all OP is questioned and therefore, needs of development of new oximes is underlined.

Evaluation of reactivation test in anaesthetized dogs with experimental intoxication with nerve agents.

Following repeated antidotal treatment of anaesthetized dogs (1 min with atropine, 10 min with atropine and obidoxime, 60 min with atropine and obidoxime) after the intoxication with soman, sarin and VX (1 x LD50, i.m.), the blood cholinesterases (erythrocyte, whole blood, plasma) were monitored and their reactivatability (whole blood) was determined. During this treatment, the activities of erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase (AChE), plasma butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) and whole blood cholinesterases were monitored. Atropine and obidoxime did not affect cholinesterase activities in control animals, whereas administration of obidoxime to dogs intoxicated with nerve agent caused an increase in the cholinesterase activities. The sensitivity of cholinesterases decreased in the order erythrocyte AChE > whole blood cholinesterases > plasma BuChE, respectively. Following sarin intoxication, blood cholinesterases were increased after the obidoxime administration. Intoxication with VX showed a similar picture but reactivation after the obidoxime administration was greater. In soman intoxication, the picture of cholinesterase changes was similar during the first 30 min of treatment. Then the increase in AChE activity following obidoxime administration was not as high as in the case of sarin and VX intoxication. Thus, the reactivation efficacy of obidoxime during nerve agent intoxication indicates that its repeated administration could be easily monitored using the reactivation test.

Changes of acetylcholinesterase activity after long-term exposure to sarin vapors in rats.

In our study, rats were exposed to sarin vapors for 240 min at four different concentrations (0.30, 0.43, 0.58 and 0.82 microg/L) in a whole-body inhalation chamber. The acetylcholinesterase activity (AChE, EC 3.1.1.7) was measured in the whole blood, frontal cortex (FC), pontomedullar area (PM) and basal ganglia (BG). Convulsions and hypersalivation were observed in only one animal of the group exposed to the highest sarin concentration. The decrease in blood AChE activity was significant in all animals exposed to sarin vapors. The highest inhibition of AChE activity (61%) was determined in animals exposed to sarin vapors at a concentration of 0.82 microg/L. In the PM, AChE activity was decreased in all experimental groups, significantly only in the group exposed to sarin vapors at a concentration of 0.58 microg/L. Our results show that in long-term exposure to low concentrations of sarin, the significant decrease in AChE activity in the blood is followed by significant changes of AChE activity in the PM only. This part of the brain seems to be more sensitive than the FC or BG.

[A comparison of the efficacy of the reactivators of acetylcholinesterase inhibited with tabun]. / Srovnávání úcinnosti reaktivátoru acetylcholinesterasy inhibované tabunem.

The nerve agent tabun inhibits acetylcholinesterase (AChE; EC 3.1.1.7) by the formation of a covalent bond with the enzyme. Afterwards, AChE is not able to fulfil its role in the organism and subsequently cholinergic crisis occurs. AChE reactivators (pralidoxime, obidoxime and HI-6) as causal antidotes are used for the cleavage of the bond between the enzyme and nerve agent. Unfortunately, their potency for reactivation of tabun-inhibited AChE is poor. The aim of the study was to choose the most potent reactivator of tabun-inhibited AChE. We have tested eight AChE reactivators--pralidoxime, obidoxime, trimedoxime, HI-6, methoxime, Hlö-7 and our newly synthesized oximes K027 and K048. All reactivators were tested using our standard in vitro reactivation test (pH 8, 25 degrees C, time of inhibition by the nerve agent 30 minutes, time of reactivation by AChE reactivator 10 minutes). According to our results, only trimedoxime was able to achieve 50% reactivation potency. However, this relatively high potency was achieved at high oxime concentration (10(-2) M). At a lower concentration of 10(-4) M (the probably attainable concentration in vivo), four AChE reactivators (trimedoxime, obidoxime, K027, and K048) were able to reactivate AChE inhibited by tabun reaching from 10 to 18%.

Biochemical effects of low level exposure to soman vapour.

The aim of this study was to demonstrate changes in acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) activities, tyrosine aminotransferase activity (TAT) and plasma corticosterone level, neuroexcitability and behavior following 24 hours and 4 weeks of soman sublethal inhalation exposure at low level. AChE activity in erythrocytes and BuChE activity in plasma was decreased (dependent on the concentration of soman) 24 h and 4 weeks after the exposure. Similar decrease in AChE activity in different brain parts was observed. One of stressogenic parameters (TAT) was changed after 24 h exposure only. 4 weeks after the exposure, these parameters (corticosterone and TAT) were in the range of normal values. Behaviour of experimental animals was changed 24 h after the exposure persisting 4 weeks after the exposure as well as neuroexcitability.

Relationship between plasmatic levels of sarin and cholinesterase inhibition in rats exposed to sarin vapors.

In our study we monitored plasmatic levels of sarin and changes in cholinesterase activities in rats after exposure to sarin vapors at low concentration. Rats were exposed to sarin in inhalation chamber at concentration 1.25 or 2.5 microg/l for 60 minutes. The acetylcholinesterase activity was measured in erythrocytes and in different brain regions (frontal cortex--FC, pontomedullar area--PM, basal ganglia--BG). Butyrylcholinesterase activity and sarin levels were measured in plasma. Acetylcholinesterase activity in erythrocytes as well as butyrylcholinesterase activity in plasma were significantly decreased in both groups of animals after intoxication with sarin. In brain, the significant decrease in acetylcholinesterase activity was measured in FC and PM for both groups. In group exposed to higher concentration of sarin vapors, the plasmatic level of sarin was nearly 2 x higher than in group exposed to sarin at concentration 1.25 microg/l. The linear dependence between plasmatic levels of sarin and AChE activity was assayed in FC region of brain and in erythrocytes, exponential relationship in PM region of brain and for BuChE activity in plasma.

Toxic effects of sarin in rats at three months following single or repeated low-level inhalation exposure.

Male albino Wistar rats were once or repeatedly exposed to three various low concentrations of sarin for 60 min. in the inhalation chamber. The clinical status of control as well as sarin-poisoned rats was tested 3 months after exposure to sarin using biochemical, haematological, neurophysiological, behavioural and immunotoxicological methods. While biochemical and haematological parameters, including the activities of cholinesterases in erythrocytes, plasma and various organs (brain, diaphragm), did not differ from the control values regardless of the sarin concentration used, few signs of sarin-induced neurotoxicity and immunotoxicity in sarin-poisoned rats were demonstrated. This was especially true when the single exposure of rats to non-convulsive symptomatic concentration and repeated exposure of rats to clinically asymptomatic concentration of sarin was used. In rats repeatedly poisoned with clinically asymptomatic concentrations of sarin, the alteration of the gait characterized by ataxia, the increase in the stereotyped behaviour, the increase in the excitability of the central nervous system following the administration of the convulsive drug pentamethylenetetrazol were observed. In rats poisoned with non-convulsive symptomatic concentration of sarin, the subtle supression of spontaneous, as well as lipopolysaccharides-stimulated, proliferation of spleen lymphocytes and the bactericidal activity of peritoneal macrophages was primarily observed besides the signs of neurotoxicity. Our findings confirm that both non-convulsive symptomatic and clinically asymptomatic concentrations of sarin can only cause very few, subtle long-term signs of neurotoxicity and immunotoxicity in sarin-poisoned rats when the rats were exposed to asymptomatic sarin concentrations repeatedly.

[Comparison of the reactivating effect of BI-6, a new asymmetrical bispyridinium oxime, with oxime HI-6 and obidoxime on soman-inhibited acetylcholinesterase in the diaphragm and various parts of the brain in rats]. / Srovnání reaktivacní úcinnosti nového asymetrického bispyridiniového oximu BI-6 s oximem HI-6 a obidoximem vuci somanem inhibované acetylcholinesteráze v bránici a ruzných cástech mozku potkana.

BACKGROUND: Acute poisoning with the highly toxic organophosphorus agent, soman, is not treated satisfactorily even by the most modern antidotes. METHODS AND RESULTS: In experiments on rats, the reactivating effect of a new asymmetric bispyridinium oxime BI-6 was compared with widely used oximes HI-6 and obidoxime by investigating the changes of soman-inhibited acetylcholinesterase activity in the diaphragm and various parts of the brain in rats up to three hours following soman challenge. Our findings confirm that the new oxime BI-6 is a more effective reactivator of soman-inhibited acetylcholinesterase than obidoxime but not as effective as the oxime HI-6 especially in the peripheral compartment. CONCLUSIONS: The new oxime BI-6 is not as effective as HI-6 which seems to have definite advantages over other oximes in the treatment of soman poisoning.

Cholinesterases in dexrazoxane-treated daunorubicin cardiomyopathy in rabbits.

Changes in cholinesterases activities in daunorubicin cardiomyopathy and in dexrazoxane (DRZX)-treated daunorubicin cardiomyopathy were investigated in rabbits. Acetyl- and butyrylcholinesterase (AChE and BuChE) were determined using Ellman's method. In the serum, a significant decrease of BuChE was observed in the daunorubicin group (9.05 at the beginning and 7.15 microcat/l at the end of the experiment). After DRZX, no significant changes were found and a significant increase in BuChE was observed in the control group (10.26-12.38 microcat/l). AChE activity in the left and right cardiac ventricles was not significantly different between the groups while in the septum there was a significantly lower AChE activity found in the daunorubicin group only. BuChE activity was significantly decreased in the left (15.64 ncat/g) and right (19.27 ncat/g) heart ventricles, in the septum and in the liver in the daunorubicin group. A significant decrease in serum total protein and albumin was demonstrated only in the daunorubicin group. Our results support the hypothesis about the influence of daunorubicin on protein (and enzyme) synthesis in the liver and heart. A protective effect of DRZX on cholinesterases activity was observed. The changes in cholinesterase activities may thus reflect their possible role in cardiomyopathy.

Effect of 7-methoxytacrine and L-carnitine on the activity of choline acetyltransferase.

Changes of choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) activity in the hippocampus and the basal ganglia were studied in rats treated i.p. with L-carnitine (CRT) and 7-methoxytacrine (7-MEOTA) (i.m.) separately or 3-days treated with L-carnitine and then with one administration of 7-MEOTA. Both compounds increased ChAT activity when administered separately. 3-day treatment of CRT followed by administration of 7-MEOTA normalized ChAT activity.

In vitro inhibition of rabbit and Guinea pig erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase by soman.

Guinea pig and rabbit erythrocytes were incubated with a high concentration of soman to achieve zero acetylcholinesterase activity. After washing with saline, the erythrocytes were incubated with horse plasma butyrylcholinesterase. The inhibition of plasma butyrylcholinesterase activity was observed because of inhibitor release from the erythrocytes. This release was quantified and found to be the highest after 30min of incubation. Our results confirm that erythrocytes can serve as a depot for soman and make it possible to lengthen its toxic effects.

Changes of acetylcholinesterase activity in various parts of brain following nontreated and treated soman poisoning in rats.

Changes of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity in various parts of the brain (frontal cortex, medulla oblongata, pons Varoli, cerebellum, hypothalamus, and hippocampus), following im sublethal non-treated and treated soman poisoning were studied. As a treatment, two antidotal mixtures containing atropine and either obidoxime or oxime HI-6 were used. This antidotal treatment was administered im for 30 s following soman intoxication. The AChE activities in the various brain tissues were evaluated at 1 and 3 h following soman administration. As expected, the highly toxic organophosphorus compound, soman, markedly inhibited AChE activity in all the brain sections at both time intervals. Both oximes had little influence on soman-induced AChE inhibition, but only the HI-6 mixture was able to reactivate soman-inhibited AChE significantly in some of the brain parts (frontal cortex, pons Varoli, hypothalamus). In the brain, the effect of HI-6 against soman-induced AChE inhibition is higher in comparison with obidoxime, but not quite satisfactory. Despite its limited effectiveness in the brain, HI-6 seems to be the most effective oxime yet found against soman poisoning because of its high reactivating effect in the peripheral compartment and other beneficial effects.

Myocardial elements content and cardiac function after repeated i.v. administration of DMPS in rabbits.

1. A dithiol chelating agent--2,3-dimercapto-1-propanesulphonate (DMPS)--may be administered in acute or chronic intoxication with certain heavy metals (e.g. cadmium, cobalt, lead) that may cause cardiotoxicity. 2. DMPS can act as a depleter of physiologically important elements (e.g. potassium, magnesium, calcium) in various tissues including cardiac one. The possibility of subsequent alteration in cardiac function cannot be excluded. 3. Changes in the myocardial concentration of the above mentioned elements at the end of the experiment and cardiac function were studied during repeated i.v. administration of DMPS as single doses of 50 mg/kg/ week for 10 weeks in rabbits. Biochemical, haematological and histological examinations were also performed. 4. Most of the measured parameters were not affected by the repeated administration of DMPS. A significant decrease in magnesium and a near significant decrease in calcium in cardiac muscle was not accompanied by functional or morphological changes. It is still suggested, however, that care should be taken in using DMPS for treating patients with cardiotoxicity as a result of poisoning with heavy metals.

Changes of cholinesterase activity in the erythrocytes, plasma, diaphragm, liver and various parts of the brain in the rabbit following transfusion of erythrocytes with soman inhibited acetylcholinesterase.

1. The changes of cholinesterase activity in rabbit blood, peripheral tissues and the central nervous system following transfusion of erythrocytes with soman inhibited acetylcholinesterase we were demonstrated. 2. After incubation with soman for 0.5 or 24 h, erythrocytes without acetylcholinesterase activity were injected to intact rabbits and cholinesterase activity in the erythrocytes, plasma, diaphragm, liver and various parts of the brain were evaluated 24 h following blood-transfusion. 3. When erythrocytes were incubated with soman for 24 h, no changes of cholinesterase activity in the rabbit following blood-transfusion were observed with an exception of erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase. 4. When erythrocytes were incubated with soman for 0.5 h, a significant decrease in cholinesterase activity in the erythrocytes, plasma, diaphragm and liver following blood-transfusion was found. These data show that soman is able to release from erythrocytes and inhibit cholinesterase activities not only in vitro but also in vivo although the significant inhibition of cholinesterase activities by soman was only observed in the peripheral compartment.

Effects of repeated administration of dithiol chelating agent--sodium 2,3-dimercapto-1-propanesulphonate (DMPS)--on biochemical and haematological parameters in rabbits.

The effects of weekly intravenously administered a dithiol chelating agent-sodium 2,3-dimercaptopropane-sulphonate (DMPS)-in a single dose of 50 mg/kg/week for 10 weeks on biochemical and haematological parameters were studied in rabbits. DMPS was well tolerated, an increase in body weight was similar in the DMPS-treated and control animals. DMPS caused significant decrease in plasma calcium and vitamin E concentrations at the end of the experiment. No significant differences in haematological parameters between the DMPS and control groups were observed. A significant decrease in magnesium content in myocardial tissue was observed in the DMPS-treated rabbits. The above-mentioned biochemical changes should be taken into account in studies of possible chelating and radical scavenging effects of DMPS in various pathological conditions.