Psychological effects of prolonged unemployment: Relevance to models of work re-entry following injury.

The literature on the psychological and mental health effects of unemployment is reviewed in terms of its main effects and the factors that mediate its impact. Significant decrements in mental health for people of all ages are identified, with additional effects of prolonged unemployment, employment commitment, social relationships, gender, ethnic group, social class, local unemployment rate, and personal vulnerability. An integrative model is described and its applicability to models of adjustment to work-related disability is argued.

Adolescent identity and school type.

The study examined the Eriksonian notion of exploration of identity alternatives and commitment to goals and beliefs during adolescence, focusing on whether this was associated with school type. A sample of 127 girls from one private and one state school, drawn from comparable social-class backgrounds, were interviewed in depth. Each subject was classified according to Marcia's (1966) four categories of identity achievement, moratorium, foreclosure and diffusion in the domains of politics and occupation. Significant differences between the private- and state-educated samples are reported for both identity exploration and commitment in the two domains. Possible explanations for these differences are given, and recommendations for future work are made.

Political attitudes and voting among unemployed and employed youth.

This study investigated the political involvement of a sample of 1294 young people aged 17-18 years old. Seventeen per cent were employed and 83 per cent were unemployed, and the sample included males and females, blacks and white. When compared with the employed, the unemployed were more disaffected with the political system, more likely to support the Labour Party, less likely to support the Conservative Party, more likely to have voted Labour in the 1983 General Election, and less likely to have voted Conservative. Ethnic comparisons indicated that blacks were more politically disaffected than whites, were more likely than whites to express support for the Labour Party, and were more likely to vote Labour in the 1983 General Election. The only major sex difference was amongst whites, such that males were more likely to support the National Front, and females more likely to support Labour. Results are interpreted as indicating increased detachment from the main political system for some unemployed young people, and with increased attachment to Labour politics among others.

Validation of the General Health Questionnaire in a young community sample.

Validity coefficients of the 30-item, 28-item and 12-item versions of the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) were determined by comparison with the Present State Examination (PSE) in a sample of 200 17-year-olds. The PSE classified 7 people (3.5%) as cases, although only 47% were identified as free of symptoms. Misclassification rates, sensitivity and specificity values are presented for different cutting scores for the three versions of the GHQ. The GHQ-28 had superior values, especially with a cutting score of 5/6; the GHQ-12 with a 2/3 cutting score also had acceptable values. All versions of the GHQ correlated highly with the PSE Index of Definition and total scores, providing support for the treatment of GHQ scores as a continuous variable in this kind of population. Correlations between sub-scales of the GHQ-28 give further evidence for a general factor and the relative independence of the social dysfunction sub-scale.

Adolescent attitudes to smoking: their influence on behaviour.

This paper presents data on 6330 boys and girls aged 11-12 years. The relationship between gender, smoking behaviour and attitudes towards smoking in general, smoking and health, family permissiveness, school values and peer group influence are explored. Four attitude scales were constructed with sufficiently high internal consistency scores. Both boys and girls who smoke were more likely to endorse statements concerning the general desirability of smoking and also to under-value the long term dangers of smoking. Smokers were also likely to hold anti-school values and acknowledge peer group pressure to smoke. Boys who smoked were more likely to report lack of parental concern and increased parental permissiveness. Some of the boys' results and all of the girls' results provide original information for a British sample. Findings are discussed, where relevant, in terms of health education and anti-smoking strategies.

Teachers' smoking.

Children take up smoking for many reasons and it is suggested that the example set by schoolteachers may have some influence. Smoking by male teachers appears to have some effect on boys' smoking, particularly in their first two years at secondary school. Thus, in any comprehensive study of what causes children to take up smoking and in any attempt to prevent this by means of health education, the influence of teachers as well as that of relatives and friends must be considered.

Cigarette smoking and children's respiratory symptoms: validity of the questionnaire method.

Children who report that they smoke cigarettes, also report increased respiratory symptoms. Could this be an artefact of the questionnaire method? Reports of children's respiratory symptoms obtained from children and from their parents were compared. There was a significant association between these reports, although the relationship was not close. The relationship between symptoms and cigarette smoking was consistent, whichever report was used. It is concluded that the questionnaire technique is valid, and that children who smoke cigarettes are more likely than non-smokers to have respiratory symptoms.

Smoking in hospital: a survey of attitudes of staff, patients, and visitors.

A survey was carried out on attitudes to smoking in hospital. Analysis of 411 interviews showed that the majority (64%) of those questioned approved of some restrictions on patients smoking in the wards. Eighteen per cent would have liked to see a complete ban on smoking, while an identical number favoured no restrictions at all. Smoking habit influenced response; only 8% of smokers, compared with 25% of non-smokers, would have liked to see a total ban on smoking. Attitudes to smoking varied according to the status of the persons interviewed; only 6% of visitors and 7% of nurses approved of a complete ban on smoking, compared with 32% of medical students and 27% of doctors. The results suggest that the introduction of smoking and non-smoking areas in hospital wards would be approved by the majority of patients, staff, and visitors.

Effect of children's and parents' smoking on respiratory symptoms.

It has been suggested that the apparent relationship between children's cigarette smoking and their respiratory symptoms could be explained by the effect of parents' smoking upon both child's smoking and symptoms. This was investigated in a study of 6000 Derbyshire schoolchildren. Children who smoked regularly were more likely than nonsmokers to report cough first thing in the morning, cough at other times during the day or at night, and breathlessness. Children whose parents smoked were also more likely to report these symptoms than were the children of nonsmokers. Both the child's and parents' smoking were independently related to the child's respiratory symptoms. Morning cough was less prevalent than cough at other times during the day or at night, but the relationship between the child's smoking and morning cough was much closer than its relationship to cough at other times. The relationship between parents' smoking and the child's symptoms was similar for each symptom.

Long-term study of smoking by secondary schoolchildren.

We report the methodology and some first year results of a 5-year longitudinal study of smoking. In 6330 Derbyshire secondary schoolchildren aged 11-16 years, 6% of boys and 2.5% of girls were smoking one or more cigarettes per week. Higher rates of regular smoking and of children who had tried smoking were found in secondary modern schools, followed by middle, comprehensive and grammar schools. The results clarify the relationship between children's smoking habits and those of the parents and siblings. Boys were more likely to smoke if their fathers smoked and girls were more likely to smoke if their mothers smoked. Irrespective of parental smoking, whether or not siblings smoked had a great influence on whether the child would smoke. Having more money to spend, working at a part-time job, spending more evenings out with a mixed-sex peer group, at a youth club, or out dancing, and playing truant from school were all associated with an increased risk of smoking.

Why do women consult doctors? Social factors and the use of the general practitioner.

This study was designed to investigate personal and social factors associated with demand for care by women aged between 20 and 44 years, a group unlikely to suffer from chronic illness. A random sample of women was drawn from the age-sex register of a south London group practice, and information was obtained concerning their daily symptom perception, anxiety level, social and health characteristics, and their consultations for one year. Social class, family involvement, number of children in household, satisfaction with the housing, and use of other health and social services were not associated with demand for general practitioner care. Absence of basic housing amenities, difficulties in running the household, brevity of stay in the house or neighbourhood, and lack of attachment of the neighbourhood were related to a high patient-initiated consultation rate. Some of the possible interpretations of these results are discussed together with their implications for social policy planning.

Factors influencing demand for primary medical care in women aged 20-44 years: a preliminary report.

This paper reports on a study designed to relate certain social and psychological variables to demand for medical care in a random sample of female patients aged between 20 and 44 years, in a National Health Service General Practice in the United Kingdom. Women selected for study completed questionnaires on anxiety and on their social characteristics. They also completed a health diary for four weeks, and over 12 months their demand for general practitioner care was recorded. This paper summarizes some of the literature on the subject of utilization behaviour, describes the objectives and methodology, and gives some preliminary results suggesting associations between anxiety, perception of symptoms and demand for primary care.