Access to veterinary care: evaluating working definitions, barriers, and implications for animal welfare.

Humans have a moral obligation to meet the physical and mental needs of the animals in their care. This requires access to resources such as veterinary care, which is integral to achieving animal welfare. However, "access" to veterinary care is not always homogenous across communities and currently lacks a consistent definition. The objectives of this scoping review were to (1) understand how "access" to veterinary care has been defined in the literature, (2) map a broad list of potential barriers that may influence access to veterinary care, and (3) identify how access to care impacts the welfare of companion and livestock animals. The literature search yielded a total of 1,044 publications, 77 of which were relevant to our inclusion criteria, and were published between 2002 and 2022. Studies were most frequently conducted in the United States (n = 17) and Canada (n = 11). Publications defining access to veterinary care (n = 10) or discussing its impacts on animal welfare (n = 13) were minimal. However, barriers to accessing veterinary care were thoroughly discussed in the literature (n = 69) and were categorized into ten themes according to common challenges and keywords, with financial limitations (n = 57), geographic location (n = 35), and limited personnel/equipment (n = 32) being the most frequently reported. The results of this scoping review informed our proposed definition of access to veterinary care. Additionally, our findings identified a need to further investigate several understudied barriers relating to access to care (i.e., veterinarian-client relationship, client identity) and to better understand how they potentially affect animal welfare outcomes.

Management and behavioral factors associated with rehoming outcomes of dogs retired from commercial breeding kennels.

Rehoming is a potentially stressful process for dogs retired from commercial breeding (CB) kennels, as they may struggle to cope with the myriad novel factors associated with transitioning to a home environment. Failure to adapt may increase the risk of an unsuccessful adoption, jeopardizing dog welfare and the benefits of rehoming programs. Little is known about relationships between welfare in the kennel of origin and a dog's ability to transition to a family home. This study aimed at investigating the welfare states of dogs retiring from CB kennels in relation to varying management practices across kennels, and understanding how behavioral and management factors might be associated with rehoming outcomes. A total of 590 adult dogs from 30 US CB kennels were included in the study. Dog behavioral and physical health metrics were collected through direct observation, while management information was obtained through a questionnaire. One month after adoption, 32 dog owners completed a follow-up questionnaire (CBARQ). A principal component analysis extracted four behavioral components (PCs) which included food interest, sociability, boldness, and responsiveness. Factors such as sex, housing, breed, and the number of dogs per caretaker were reported as significant sources of variation for some of those PC scores (p<0.05). For instance, lower dog to caretaker ratio was linked to better health, sociability, and food interest scores. Significant relationships were also found between in-kennel PC scores and CBARQ scores (p<0.05). Most interestingly, higher levels of sociability in the kennel were associated with lower levels of social and non-social fear, and higher trainability after rehoming. Overall, dogs were found to be physically healthy, and a moderate proportion showed fearful responses toward either social or non-social stimuli. Results suggest that a comprehensive behavioral assessment of rehoming candidates while in the kennel may help identify dogs that may have more difficulty coping during rehoming. The implications for developing management strategies and necessary interventions that support positive dog welfare outcomes within the kennel and when rehomed are discussed.

The Effect of Transportation on Puppy Welfare from Commercial Breeding Kennels to a Distributor.

Many puppies from commercial breeding kennels (CBKs) are transported by ground from their kennels of origin to a distributor. This experience may elicit fear and stress during a sensitive developmental period, which may in turn negatively impact the puppies' short- and long-term welfare. This study aimed to measure short-term effects of transportation on puppy welfare metrics. Eight-week-old puppies (n = 383) from 12 CBKs were tested at their kennels (pre-trans) and ~48 h after arriving at a distributor (post-trans). At each location, puppies underwent an isolation test, a stranger-approach test, and a physical health assessment. Behavioral responses to testing were scored from videos. Fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGM), fecal secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA), and presence of intestinal parasites were also analyzed. Linear mixed-effects models identified decreased exploration (p < 0.001), and increased locomotion (p < 0.001) and escape attempts (p = 0.001) during the post-trans isolation test. Increased affiliative behavior (p < 0.001), FGM (p < 0.001) and sIgA (p = 0.014) were also observed post-trans. Findings support good physical health both pre- and post-trans, while behavioral and physiological changes suggest increased puppy distress post-trans. Higher post-transport affiliative behavior may indicate that puppies sought social support as a coping strategy after experiencing transport-related distress. Future studies should explore the efficacy of transportation-related interventions to mitigate puppy distress.

Dam (Canis familiaris) Welfare throughout the Peri-Parturient Period in Commercial Breeding Kennels.

Poor dam welfare throughout the peri-parturient period can also negatively affect that of their offspring. This study aimed to identify changes in physical, physiological, and behavioral metrics indicative of dam welfare throughout the peri-parturient period. Dams (n = 74) from eight U.S. Midwest commercial breeding (CB) kennels were tested at 6 and 1 week prepartum, and 4 and 8 weeks postpartum. At each time point dams underwent a stranger approach test, physical health assessment, hair collection for hair cortisol concentration (HCC) and fecal collection for fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGM), fecal secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA) and parasite detection. Linear mixed-effects models indicated dams exhibited more affiliative behaviors towards the stranger at 4 weeks postpartum than 6 weeks prepartum (p = 0.03), increased HCC from 4-weeks to 8 weeks postpartum (p = 0.02), and increased FGM from 1 week prepartum to 8 weeks postpartum (p = 0.04). At each respective time point, the percentage of dams with intestinal parasites was 11%, 4%, 23%, and 15%. Most changes are likely due to increased energy requirements and hormonal variations. However, deviations from expected changes may have resulted from changes in environment and/ or management, which should be explored in future studies.

The Effect of Early Neurological Stimulation on Puppy Welfare in Commercial Breeding Kennels.

Throughout their lives, dogs may experience various stressful events. Early neurological stimulation (ENS), which was shown to alter stress responses beneficially in some animals, has not been fully explored in dogs. Seventy-six small-breed puppies from one commercial breeding kennel were divided into three treatment groups: ENS, held, and control. Puppies in the ENS group received 30 s of handling exercises for 21 days after birth; puppies in the held group were simply held for the same amount of time. Puppies in the control group were managed as per normal breeder practices (i.e., routine husbandry and physical health checks). Physical health was assessed weekly, and puppies were generally healthy and clean. Behavioral responses to stranger approach and isolation tests were evaluated pre- and post-ground-transportation to a distributor. Puppies were more affiliative toward a stranger post-isolation than pre-isolation (p < 0.001), and post-transport than pre-transport (p < 0.001). At the distributor, puppies in the isolation test spent less time in exploratory locomotion (p < 0.001) and vocalized more than at the breeder's kennel (p = 0.011). Treatment did not affect these results. Overall, the results suggest that the type of ENS used in this study may not provide the purported benefits to puppies' stress responses in commercial breeding populations.

Evaluation of an easy-to-use protocol for assessing behaviors of dogs retiring from commercial breeding kennels.

Objective, reliable behavioral tests are needed to refine on-site welfare assessments of dogs housed at commercial breeding (CB) kennels and provide a basis to inform predictions of their behavior when retired from such kennels. This study tested the reliability, construct validity, and applicability of a protocol for the behavioral assessment of dogs from CB kennels that might be useful in comprehensive welfare assessments of this population. A sample of 447 dogs from 26 CB kennels in the Midwestern US were assessed in their pens. Responses to an approach test (performed on three consecutive days) and a behavioral reactivity test (e.g., traffic cone, toys, umbrella) were recorded. Results showed moderate to perfect (Kw = 0.51-1.00) inter-rater reliability between three independent observers. Approach test-retest analysis showed high correlation of approach test scores on days 1, 2 and 3 (r = 0.85, p<0.0001). Exploratory factor analysis extracted four main factors: Food Motivation (F1), Sociability (F2), Boldness (F3) (e.g., response to novel objects), and Responsiveness (F4) (e.g., response to an umbrella opening) confirming the ability of the test to measure behaviors of interest. All factors showed high internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha 0.81-0.93) further supporting the robustness of the test construct. The demonstrated reliability of this protocol suggests that it may be usefully applied to assessing the behavior of dogs as a component of their welfare assessment in CB kennels. Doing so using even larger sample sizes may yield insights on the effects of housing and management practices on dog welfare while at the kennels, which may also help inform approaches that improve rehoming outcomes for retiring breeding dogs. Practical applications and limitations are outlined.

Socialization in Commercial Breeding Kennels: The Use of Novel Stimuli to Measure Social and Non-Social Fear in Dogs.

Understanding the behavioral welfare of dogs in commercial breeding kennels (CBKs) is important for improving breeders' management practices as well as dog welfare. In the current study, breeding dogs from CBKs were exposed to novel stimuli to evaluate their behavioral responses, with emphasis on indicators of fear. Subjects were presented with a standard stranger-approach test, a traffic cone, and a realistic dog statue. Sixty dogs were exposed to the three stimuli and behavioral responses were scored using an ethogram developed for this study. Dogs spent significantly more time investigating the environment, staying further away from the stimulus, and they took longer to approach and investigate when presented with the cone than with the dog statue or stranger (p < 0.01). These findings suggest that the cone elicited more fear-related behaviors than the dog statue and stranger. Given these results, in addition to socializing their dogs to unfamiliar people and other dogs within their kennels, commercial breeders should be encouraged to increase the exposure of their dogs to more diverse novel stimuli to reduce non-social fear and support the welfare of dogs while they reside in the kennel and when they transition to new homes.

Using judgment bias test in pet and shelter dogs (Canis familiaris): Methodological and statistical caveats.

It is now widely agreed that a positive affective state is a crucial component of animal well-being. The judgment bias test represents a widespread tool used to assess animals' optimistic/pessimistic attitude and to evaluate their emotional state and welfare. Judgment bias tests have been used several times with dogs (Canis familiaris), in most cases using a spatial test with a bowl placed in ambiguous positions located between a relatively positive trained location (P) which contains a baited bowl and a relatively negative trained location (N) which contains an empty bowl. The latency to approach the bowl in the ambiguous locations is an indicator of the dog's expectation of a positive/negative outcome. However, results from such tests are often inconclusive. For the present study, the judgment bias test performance of 51 shelter dogs and 40 pet dogs was thoroughly analysed. A pattern emerged with shelter dogs behaving in a more pessimistic-like way than pet dogs. However, this difference between the two populations was detected only when analysing the raw latencies to reach the locations and not the more commonly applied adjusted score (i.e. average latency values). Furthermore, several methodological caveats were found. First of all, a non-negligible percentage of dogs did not pass the training phase, possibly due to the experimental paradigm not being fully suited for this species. Second, results showed a high intra-dog variability in response to the trained locations, i.e. the dogs' responses were not consistent throughout the test, suggesting that animals may not have fully learned the association between locations and their outcomes. Third, dogs did not always behave differently towards adjacent locations, raising doubts about the animals' ability to discriminate between locations. Finally, a potential influence of the researcher's presence on dogs' performance emerged from analyses. The implications of these findings and potential solutions are discussed.

Development of a fixed list of terms for the Qualitative Behavioural Assessment of shelter dogs.

The shelter environment may have a severe impact on the dogs' quality of life, and there is thus a need to develop valid tools to assess their welfare. These tools should be sensitive not only to the animals' physical health but also to their mental health, including the assessment of positive and negative emotions. Qualitative Behaviour Assessment (QBA) is a 'whole animal' measure that captures the expressive quality of an animal's demeanour, using descriptive terms such as 'relaxed', 'anxious', and 'playful'. In this study, for the first time, we developed and tested a fixed-list of qualitative QBA terms for application to kennelled dogs. A list of 20 QBA terms was developed based on literature search and an expert opinion survey. Inter-observer reliability was investigated by asking 11 observers to use these terms to score 13 video clips of kennelled dogs. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was used to extract four main dimensions explaining 70.9% of the total variation between clips. PC1 characterised curious/playful/excitable/sociable demeanour, PC2 ranged from comfortable/relaxed to anxious/nervous/stressed expression, PC3 described fearful demeanour, and PC4 characterised bored/depressed demeanour. Observers' agreement on the ranking of video clips on these four expressive dimensions was good (Kendall's W: 0.60-0.80). ANOVA showed a significant effect of observer on mean clip score on all PCs (p<0.05), due to few observers scoring differently from the rest of the group. Results indicate the potential of the proposed list of QBA terms for sheltered dogs to serve, in alignment with other measures, as a non-invasive assessment tool. However, the observer effect on mean PC scores points towards the need for adequate observer training, particularly in live scoring conditions. The QBA scoring tool can be integrated with existing welfare assessment protocols for shelter dogs and strengthen the power of those protocols to evaluate the animals' experience in shelters.

Revisiting a Previously Validated Temperament Test in Shelter Dogs, Including an Examination of the Use of Fake Model Dogs to Assess Conspecific Sociability.

This study assessed the feasibility and reproducibility of a previously validated temperament test (TT) for shelter dogs. The test was developed to measure dog behaviour in the kennel, and traits of sociability towards people and other dogs, docility to leash, playfulness, cognitive skills, and reactivity. We introduced the use of differently sized fake dogs to check their appropriateness in correctly assessing sociability to dogs to broaden its applicability (as the original study used real stimulus dogs). We hypothesised that dogs' responses may be modulated by the body size of the stimulus dog presented. The reduction analysis of the TT scores extracted five main dimensions (explaining 70.8% of variance), with high internal consistency (alpha > 0.65) and being broadly consistent with existing research. Behavioural components that were extracted from the fake dog experiment showed that dogs are likely to show signs of anxiety and fear toward both the real and fake dog. Dogs' responses towards a real vs. fake stimulus were significantly correlated (p < 0.05) and they were not affected by the size of the stimulus (p > 0.05). We discuss the importance of interpreting these data with caution and use behavioural tests as a partial screening tool to be used in conjunction with more extensive behavioural and welfare monitoring.

Effects of breed group and development on dogs' willingness to follow a human misleading advice.

The aim of this work was to investigate the effect of dog breed groups, i.e., primitive, hunting/herding and Mastiff like (Study 1) and development, i.e., 4-month-old puppies vs adults (Study 2) on a quantity discrimination task. The task consisted of three conditions: C1-dogs were asked to choose between a large and a small amount of food; C2-the same choice was presented and dogs could choose after having witnessed the experimenter favouring the small quantity. C3-similar to C2 but the plates had two equally small food quantities. Study 1 revealed that dogs in the hunting/herding group were significantly more likely than Mastiff-like group to choose the small quantity indicated by the person over the large one, although all dog groups chose the large quantity over the small when they had a free choice. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that hunting/herding breeds have been selected for working in cooperation with humans and thus may be more sensitive to human social communicative cues than other breeds. In Study 2, results showed that 4-month-old puppies performed at chance level in C1, whereas in C2 both adults and puppies conformed to the experimenter's choice. In C3, adults followed the experimenter significantly more than puppies, although puppies still followed the experimenter above chance. Overall, domestic dogs seem to rely heavily on social communicative cues from humans, even when the information contradicts their own perception. This tendency to respond to human social cues is present, although at a lesser extent already at 4 months.

Personality traits affecting judgement bias task performance in dogs (Canis familiaris).

Certain personality traits (e.g. anxiousness, fearfulness), are known to affect the cognitive processing of environmental stimuli, such as the judgement of ambiguous stimuli (judgement bias). Our aim was to assess if personality traits are predictive of a more or less 'pessimistic' or 'optimistic' judgement bias in the domestic dog. We assessed dog personality (N = 31) using two validated protocols: the Dog Mentality Assessment (standardised battery test) and the CBARQ (owner-based survey). We used a common task based on the animals' latency to approach a bowl placed in one of three ambiguous positions (Near Positive, Middle, Near Negative) between a baited (Positive) and a non-baited food bowl (Negative) to assess judgement bias. Linear Mixed Model analyses revealed that dogs scoring higher on sociability, excitability and non-social-fear had shorter response latencies to bowls in an ambiguous location, indicating a more 'optimistic' bias. In contrast, dogs scoring higher on separation-related-behaviour and dog-directed-fear/aggression traits were more likely to judge an ambiguous stimulus as leading to a negative outcome, indicating a more 'pessimistic' bias. Results, partially consistent with previous findings in humans, indicate that personality plays a role in the cognitive processing of environmental stimuli in the domestic dog.

Stability of motor bias in the domestic dog, Canis familiaris.

This study explored the relationship between four measures of canine paw preference to establish whether the distribution, direction or strength of motor bias was consistent between tasks. Thirty-two dogs had their paw preferences tested using the Kong ball, tape, lift paw and First-stepping tests. A smaller sample were re-tested 6 months later. The distribution of the dogs' paw preferences was not significantly different from that expected by chance for the Kong ball and lift paw tests; dogs were significantly more inclined towards ambilaterality on the tape and First-stepping tests. More female dogs employed their right paw on the lift paw test; males were more likely to be ambilateral or left-pawed. There was no significant correlation in the direction of dogs' paw use for any tests. The First-stepping and lift paw tests were positively correlated for strength of paw use. Analysis revealed a significant correlation in direction and strength of dogs' paw use between the first and second attempts of all measures, except the tape test. Findings suggest that paw preference in the dog is not consistent between tasks, although stable over time. The study raises questions as to which test of paw preference is the most appropriate to employ.

Effects of different rest-stop durations at control posts during a long journey on the welfare of sheep.

All livestock transport within the European Union must comply with the EC Regulation 1÷2005. For sheep, this law prescribes a maximum journey of 29 hours after which animals must rest in control posts (CP) for 24 hours before further transportation. However, there is no scientific evidence de ning the effects of di erent stop duration on sheep recovery during long journeys. The aim of this study was to assess if a shorter stop could be provided without impairing ewes' welfare. Ninety-six adult ewes were divided into 4 homogenous groups. One group stayed at the farm (control) and the other 3 were transported for 29 hours (long-transport, LT), stopped at CP for di erent times (8 hours (S8 group); 16 hours (S16 group); 24 hours (S24 group)) and were re-transported for 6 hours (short-transport, ST). Blood and saliva were collected to assess dehydration, muscular damage, and adrenocortical stress before departure, after LT, after the stop, and after ST. The LT a ected the hydration of all transported groups (i.e. higher BUN÷creatinine levels than controls, p<0.001), but basal values were restored after the ST, regardless of the stop duration. After the ST, S8 group had higher muscular damage than the other groups (p<0.05). No di erences in stress level were observed. These results suggest that, in this trial, ewe's welfare was not impaired by a stop reduction from 24 hours to 16 hours.

Breed, sex, and litter effects in 2-month old puppies' behaviour in a standardised open-field test.

A considerable number of studies have reported differences among dog breeds with respect to their genetic profile, cognitive abilities or personality traits. Each dog breed is normally treated as a homogeneous group, however, researchers have recently questioned whether the behavioural profile of modern breeds still reflects their historical function or if the intense divergent selective pressures and geographical barriers have created a more fragmented picture. The majority of studies attempting to assess and compare modern breeds' personality focused on the evaluation of adult dogs where the potential effects of environmental/human factors on the dogs' behaviour are hard to discern from their genetic heritage. In the following study, we aimed at investigating between- and within-breed differences in the personality of two-months-old puppies by direct behavioural observation of 377 puppies from 12 breeds. Results showed that there was no effect of sex, however both breed and litter, significantly affected all personality traits. Breed on average explained 10% of the variance, whereas the effect of litter was noticeably higher, explaining on average 23% of the variance. Taken together, our results suggest that breed does have some influence on personality traits, but they also highlight the importance of taking litter effects into account.

Cognitive bias and paw preference in the domestic dog (Canis familiaris).

Limb use, an indicator of hemispheric functioning, may be a useful predictor of cognitive bias and hence vulnerability to welfare risk. The relationship between cognitive bias and motor asymmetry, however, has been subject to little investigation. This study explored the association between motor asymmetry and cognitive bias in the domestic dog, a species that displays lateral bias in the form of paw preferences and exhibits positive and negative affective states. Thirty pet dogs had their paw preferences assessed using the Kong ball test. The subjects' affective state was assessed using a cognitive bias test in which the animals' latency to approach a bowl placed in 1 of 3 ambiguous positions was recorded. Animals veering more toward a left-paw preference were found to be significantly slower to approach the bowl placed in 1 of the ambiguous positions than ambilateral or right-pawed dogs. Left-pawed subjects approached the bowl located at the 3 ambiguous positions at roughly the same speed, while ambilateral and right-pawed animals became increasingly slower to approach the bowl the further it was located from the baited food bowl. The study points to a possible relationship between cognitive bias and paw preference in the dog, with left-pawed animals being more negative or "pessimistic" in their cognitive outlook than right-pawed or ambilateral individuals. It is proposed that limb preference testing might offer a more practical and straightforward way of identifying individuals at risk from poor welfare by virtue of how they perceive the world than more time-consuming cognitive bias tests. (PsycINFO Database Record

Validation of the Socially Acceptable Behaviour (SAB) test in a Central­Italy pet dog population.

Aggressiveness is reported to be the most important public health issue related to both owned and free­roaming dogs. Common approaches to assess canine aggressiveness are temperament tests. The main aim of this study was to evaluate whether one such test, the Socially Acceptable Behaviour (SAB) test, created to evaluate aggressive and fearful behaviour in dogs in the Netherlands, could be used reliably to assess dog aggression and fear in a population of owned dogs in Central Italy. Reactions to the test were recorded and compared to the owners' perception of their dog's aggressiveness using a validated questionnaire (C­BARQ). Dogs showing aggressive reactions during the test obtained significantly higher (more aggressive) scores on the C­BARQ subscales 'stranger­directed aggression' (SDA p<0.001), 'owner­directed aggression' (ODA p = 0.03), and 'familiar dog aggression' (FDA p = 0.006), than dogs who did not react aggressively. Logistic regression analysis revealed that 7 of the SAB­subtests were predictive of the SDA score. The findings indicated that aggression directed toward unfamiliar people can be reliably assessed using the SAB test for a population of Italian pet dogs.

Association between lateral bias and personality traits in the domestic dog (Canis familiaris).

Behavioral laterality reflects the cerebral functional asymmetry. Measures of laterality have been associated with emotional stress, problem-solving, and personality in some vertebrate species. Thus far, the association between laterality and personality in the domestic dog has been largely overlooked. In this study, we investigated whether lateralized (left or right) and ambilateral dogs differed in their behavioral response to a standardized personality test. The dog's preferred paw to hold a Kong ball filled with food and the first paw used to step-off from a standing position were scored as laterality measures. The Dog Mentality Assessment (DMA) test was used to assess 5 personality traits (e.g., sociability, aggressiveness) and a broader shy-boldness dimension. No differences emerged between left- and right-biased dogs on any personality trait. Instead, ambilateral dogs, scored using the Kong test, scored higher on their playfulness (Z = -1.98, p = .048) and Aggressiveness (Z = -2.10, p = .036) trait scores than did lateralized (irrespective of side) dogs. Also, ambilateral dogs assessed by using the First-Stepping test scored higher than lateralized dogs on the Sociability (Z = -2.83, p = .005) and Shy-Boldness (Z = -2.34, p = .019) trait scores. Overall, we found evidence of a link between canine personality and behavioral laterality, and this was especially true for those traits relating to stronger emotional reactivity, such as aggressiveness, fearfulness, and sociability. (PsycINFO Database Record

Quick, Accurate, Smart: 3D Computer Vision Technology Helps Assessing Confined Animals' Behaviour.

Mankind directly controls the environment and lifestyles of several domestic species for purposes ranging from production and research to conservation and companionship. These environments and lifestyles may not offer these animals the best quality of life. Behaviour is a direct reflection of how the animal is coping with its environment. Behavioural indicators are thus among the preferred parameters to assess welfare. However, behavioural recording (usually from video) can be very time consuming and the accuracy and reliability of the output rely on the experience and background of the observers. The outburst of new video technology and computer image processing gives the basis for promising solutions. In this pilot study, we present a new prototype software able to automatically infer the behaviour of dogs housed in kennels from 3D visual data and through structured machine learning frameworks. Depth information acquired through 3D features, body part detection and training are the key elements that allow the machine to recognise postures, trajectories inside the kennel and patterns of movement that can be later labelled at convenience. The main innovation of the software is its ability to automatically cluster frequently observed temporal patterns of movement without any pre-set ethogram. Conversely, when common patterns are defined through training, a deviation from normal behaviour in time or between individuals could be assessed. The software accuracy in correctly detecting the dogs' behaviour was checked through a validation process. An automatic behaviour recognition system, independent from human subjectivity, could add scientific knowledge on animals' quality of life in confinement as well as saving time and resources. This 3D framework was designed to be invariant to the dog's shape and size and could be extended to farm, laboratory and zoo quadrupeds in artificial housing. The computer vision technique applied to this software is innovative in non-human animal behaviour science. Further improvements and validation are needed, and future applications and limitations are discussed.

Does Subjective Rating Reflect Behavioural Coding? Personality in 2 Month-Old Dog Puppies: An Open-Field Test and Adjective-Based Questionnaire.

A number of studies have recently investigated personality traits in non-human species, with the dog gaining popularity as a subject species for research in this area. Recent research has shown the consistency of personality traits across both context and time for adult dogs, both when using questionnaire based methods of investigation and behavioural analyses of the dogs' behaviour. However, only a few studies have assessed the correspondence between these two methods, with results varying considerably across studies. Furthermore, most studies have focused on adult dogs, despite the fact that an understanding of personality traits in young puppies may be important for research focusing on the genetic basis of personality traits. In the current study, we sought to evaluate the correspondence between a questionnaire based method and the in depth analyses of the behaviour of 2-month old puppies in an open-field test in which a number of both social and non-social stimuli were presented to the subjects. We further evaluated consistency of traits over time by re-testing a subset of puppies. The correspondence between methods was high and test- retest consistency (for the main trait) was also good using both evaluation methods. Results showed clear factors referring to the two main personality traits 'extroversion,' (i.e. the enthusiastic, exuberant approach to the stimuli) and 'neuroticism,' (i.e. the more cautious and fearful approach to the stimuli), potentially similar to the shyness-boldness dimension found in previous studies. Furthermore, both methods identified an 'amicability' dimension, expressing the positive interactions the pups directed at the humans stranger, and a 'reservedness' dimension which identified pups who largely chose not to interact with the stimuli, and were defined as quiet and not nosey in the questionnaire.