The relationship between host defense peptides and adrenal steroids. An account of reciprocal influences.

AIM: ß-defensins 2 and -3 (HBD-2 and HBD-3) and cathelicidin LL-37 are host defense peptides (HDPs) that play a crucial role in the immune response against mycobacteria. Given our former studies in tuberculosis patients wherein their plasma levels of such peptides correlated with steroid hormone concentrations, we now studied the reciprocal influence of cortisol and/or dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) on HDPs biosynthesis and LL-37 on adrenal steroidogenesis. MAIN METHODS: Cultures of macrophages derived from the THP-1 line were treated with cortisol (10-6M) and/or DHEA (10-6M and 10-7M) and stimulated with irradiated M. tuberculosis (Mi) or infected M. tuberculosis strain H37Rv to assess cytokine production, HDPs, reactive oxygen species (ROS) and colony forming units. Cultures of NCI-H295-R adrenal line were treated with LL37 (5, 10, and 15 µg/ml) for 24 h to further measure cortisol and DHEA levels together with steroidogenic enzyme transcripts. KEY FINDINGS: In macrophages, M. tuberculosis produced an increase of IL-1ß, TNFα, IL-6, IL-10, LL-37, HBD-2, and HBD-3 levels, irrespective of DHEA treatment. Adding cortisol to M. tuberculosis-stimulated cultures (with or without DHEA) decreased the amounts of these mediators, compared to only stimulated cultures. Although M. tuberculosis reduced ROS levels, DHEA increased these values in addition to diminishing intracellular mycobacterial growth (no matter cortisol treatment). In turn, studies on adrenal cells showed that LL-37 reduced the production of cortisol and DHEA besides modifying transcripts for some steroidogenic enzymes. SIGNIFICANCE: while adrenal steroids seem to influence the production of HDPs, the former compounds are also likely to modulate adrenal biogenesis.

Studies on the contribution of PPAR Gamma to tuberculosis physiopathology.

Introduction: Tuberculosis (TB) is a major health problem characterized by an immuno-endocrine imbalance: elevated plasma levels of cortisol and pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators, as well as reduced levels of dehydroepiandrosterone. The etiological agent, Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), is captured by pulmonary macrophages (Mf), whose activation is necessary to cope with the control of Mtb, however, excessive activation of the inflammatory response also leads to tissue damage. Glucocorticoids (GC) are critical elements to counteract the immunoinflammatory reaction, and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are also involved in this regard. The primary forms of these receptors are PPARϒ, PPARα, and PPARß/δ, the former being the most involved in anti-inflammatory responses. In this work, we seek to gain some insight into the contribution of PPARϒ in immuno-endocrine-metabolic interactions by focusing on clinical studies in pulmonary TB patients and in vitro experiments on a Mf cell line. Methods and results: We found that TB patients, at the time of diagnosis, showed increased expression of the PPARϒ transcript in their peripheral blood mononuclear cells, positively associated with circulating cortisol and related to disease severity. Given this background, we investigated the expression of PPARϒ (RT-qPCR) in radiation-killed Mtb-stimulated human Mf. The Mtb stimulation of Mf derived from the human line THP1 significantly increased the expression of PPARϒ, while the activation of this receptor by a specific agonist decreased the expression of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1ß and IL-10). As expected, the addition of GC to stimulated cultures reduced IL-1ß production, while cortisol treatment together with the PPARϒ agonist lowered the levels of this proinflammatory cytokine in stimulated cultures. The addition of RU486, a glucocorticoid receptor antagonist, only reversed the inhibition produced by the addition of GC. Conclusion: The current results provide a stimulating background for further analysis of the interconnection between PPARs and steroid hormones in the context of Mtb infection.

The Immunoregulatory Actions of DHEA in Tuberculosis, A Tool for Therapeutic Intervention?

Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is an androgen synthesized by the adrenal cortex, which is an intermediary in the biosynthesis of sex hormones, such as testosterone and estradiol. DHEA mostly circulates as a conjugated ester, in the form of sulfate (DHEA-S). There exist several endogenous factors able to influence its synthesis, the most common ones being the corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH), adrenocorticotrophin (ACTH), growth factors, and proinflammatory cytokines, among others. Like other steroid hormones, DHEA, can alter the functioning of immune cells and therefore the course of diseases exhibiting an immune-inflammatory component, mostly from autoimmune or infectious nature. We herein review the role played by DHEA during a major infectious disease like tuberculosis (TB). Data recorded from TB patients, mouse models, or in vitro studies show that DHEA is likely to be implied in better disease control. This provides a stimulating background for carrying out clinical studies aimed at assessing the usefulness of DHEA as an adjuvant in TB patients.

Differential expression of genes regulated by the glucocorticoid receptor pathway in patients with pulmonary tuberculosis.

AIMS: Previous studies in TB patients showed an immuno-endocrine imbalance characterized by a disease-severity associated increase in plasma levels of proinflammatory cytokines and glucocorticoids (GCs). To analyze the potential immunomodulatory effect of circulating GCs over peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from TB patients, we investigated the expression of positively (anti-inflammatory-related genes ANXA1; FKBP51; GILZ, NFKBIA, and NFKBIB) and negatively (inflammatory genes: IL-6, IL-1ß, and IFN-γ) Glucocorticoids Receptors (GR)-regulated genes. Plasma concentrations of cytokines and hormones, together with specific lymphoproliferation were also assessed. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Gene expression was quantified by RT-qPCR, specific lymphoproliferation by 3H-thymidine incorporation, whereas plasma cytokines and hormones levels by ELISA. KEY FINDINGS: Transcripts of ANXA1, GILZ, NFKBIB, and NFKBIA appeared significantly increased in patients, whereas FKBP51, IL-6, IL-1ß, and NF-κB remained unchanged. Upon analyzing according to disease severity, mRNA levels for ANXA1 and NFKBIB were even higher in moderate and severe patients. GILZ was increased in moderate cases, with NFKBIA and IL-1 ß being higher in severe ones, who also displayed increased GRß transcripts. TB patients had reduced plasma DHEA concentrations together with increased pro and anti-inflammatory cytokines (IFN-γ, IL-6, and IL-10) cortisol and cortisol/DHEA ratio, more evident in progressive cases, in whom their PBMC also showed a decreased mycobacterial-driven proliferation. The cortisol/DHEA ratio and GRα expression were positively correlated with GR-regulated genes mainly in moderate patients. SIGNIFICANCE: The increased expression of cortisol-regulated anti-inflammatory genes in TB patients-PBMC, predominantly in progressive disease, seems compatible with a relatively insufficient attempt to downregulate the accompanying inflammation.

Increased levels of circulating LPS during Tuberculosis prevails in patients with advanced pulmonary involvement.

Our earlier studies in tuberculosis (TB) patients indicate that in those where the process evolves to a larger pulmonary involvement, the immune endocrine response may promote an unfavorable environment. Chronic infectious diseases, and their persistent proinflammatory response, may affect mucosal barriers integrity favoring the translocation of gastrointestinal bacteria, leading to an increase of circulating lipopolysaccharides (LPS). Consequently, we quantified LPS levels in TB patients, with different degrees of pulmonary involvement, and controls (Co) and analyzed the possible relationship between LPS and inflammatory mediators i.e., C reactive protein (CRP), interleukin 6 (IL-6) and Interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR), steroid hormones (Cortisol and Dehydroepiandrosterone, DHEA), and inflammatory transcripts from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (IL-1ß, IL-6, IFN-γ). LPS was assessed by the Limulus amoebocyte lysate assay and the ELISA technique was used to quantify hormones and cytokines in the plasma samples. Cytokine transcripts from PBMC were evaluated by qRT-PCR. Non-parametric tests were used. LPS levels were increased in TB patients, as did levels of CRP, IL-6, IFN-γ, cortisol and ESR. Severe patients had the highest amounts of circulating LPS; with moderate and severe cases showing much higher levels of CRP, ESR, IL-6, IFN-γ and cortisol/DHEA ratio, as an endocrine imbalance. Only in PBMC from severe cases was mRNA for IL-1ß increased. Correlation analysis showed that levels of LPS from severe patients were positively associated with IL-6 and IFN-γ plasma concentrations and with IL-1ß transcripts, while IL-6 had a positive correlation with the cortisol/DHEA ratio. The higher levels of circulating LPS during progressive TB may emerge as a contributing factor for the persistence of the greater immune endocrine imbalance distinctive of advanced disease, which might suggest a vicious cycle among LPS, inflammation and endocrine imbalance.

Local Regulation of Adrenal Steroidogenesis: Subtle in vitro Effects of IL-1ß on the Human Cell Line NCI-H295R Steroid Production along with Changes in MicroRNA Profile and Orphan Nuclear Receptors NR4As.

INTRODUCTION: IL-1ß, a cytokine from the innate immune response, is well known for its proinflammatory effects and stimulating activity on the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis, leading to the pituitary synthesis of adrenocorticotropic hormone followed by cortisol (and dehydroepiandrosterone - DHEA) release by the adrenal gland. While IL-1ß modulates the adrenal steroidogenesis at the central level, it is unclear whether it also exerts an effect on the adrenal gland. METHOD: We studied the effect of IL-1ß on adrenal steroid production and steroidogenic enzyme RNA expression in the human cell line NCI-H295R. We also explored eventual changes in the microRNA (miRNA) profile from IL-1ß-treated NCI-H295R cells. RESULTS: Transcripts encoding IL-1ß receptors 1 and 2 were noticeable in the cell line, with cortisol and DHEA production showing a subtle increase after cytokine treatment. Transcripts from key enzymes in the steroidogenic pathway were analyzed, with no noticeable changes on them. The miRNA profile was modified by IL-1ß treatment to an extent which bears some relationship with the regulatory mechanisms underlying adrenal steroid production. Since orphan nuclear receptors NR4As have emerged as potential key factors for coordinating inflammatory and metabolic responses, cell expression studies were also carried out to show an NR4As transcript augmentation following IL-1ß treatment. DISCUSSION/CONCLUSIONS: The subtle increase in adrenal steroid production in response to IL-1ß stimulation without any modification in the transcription of the steroidogenic enzymes analyzed suggests an additional inflammatory/anti-inflammatory loop, wherein NR4As receptors may participate. Besides its physiological role, this process might be implied in pathological states accompanied by an unbalanced immune-endocrine relationship.

Evidence that changes in antimicrobial peptides during tuberculosis are related to disease severity, clinical presentation, specific therapy and levels of immune-endocrine mediators.

Given the role of host defense peptides (HDPs) in the defensive response against mycobacteria, we analyzed the circulating levels of LL-37, ß-defensin-2 and -3 in newly diagnosed patients with pulmonary (PTB) or pleural tuberculosis (PLTB) in whom measurements of pleural fluids were also performed. Severe PTB patients displayed higher circulating amounts of ß-defensin-3, statistically different from controls, further decreasing upon antimycobacterial treatment. LL-37 concentrations appeared within the normal range at diagnosis, but tended to increase during treatment, becoming statistically upon its completion in moderate cases. PLTB patients revealed decreased levels of ß-defensin-2 in presence of increased amounts of ß-defensin-3 and LL-37; in their plasma or pleural fluids. Considering the immune-endocrine dysregulation of tuberculosis, we also performed correlation analysis detecting positive associations between levels of cortisol, IL-6 and ß-defensin-3 in plasma from untreated severe patients as did their dehydroepiandrosterone and LL-37 values. Increased presence of ß-defensins, may represent an attempt to improve defensive mechanisms; which also take part in the inflammatory reaction accompanying TB, reinforced by the association with immune-endocrine mediators. The divergent profile of PLTB patients, decreased ß-defensin-2 but increased ß-defensin-3 and LL-37 levels, suggests a differential role of these HDPs in a situation characterized for its better protective response.

The clinical recovery of tuberculosis patients undergoing specific treatment is associated with changes in the immune and neuroendocrine responses.

Tuberculosis (TB) caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis is a health problem worldwide. Patients with pulmonary TB show a neuro-immune-endocrine imbalance characterized by an impaired cellular immunity together with increased plasma levels of cortisol, pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines and markedly decreased dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) levels. Extending these findings, we now investigated the immune-endocrine profile of TB patients undergoing specific treatment. Patients (n = 24) were bled at diagnosis (T0), 2, 4, 6 months after treatment initiation and 3 months following its completion. At T0, TB patients showed increased plasma levels of interleukin-6 (IL-6), C reactive protein, interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) and transforming growth factor beta (TGF-ß). These mediators decreased during treatment, reaching levels similar to those from healthy controls (n = 26). Specific treatment led to an increased lymphoproliferative response along with clinical improvement. Newly diagnosed patients had low levels of DHEA, with increased cortisol amounts and cortisol/DHEA ratio, which normalized upon specific treatment. As regards glucocorticoid receptors (GR), TB patients at diagnosis presented a reduced mRNA GRα/GRß ratio in their peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Furthermore, multivariate analysis showed that cortisol/DHEA ratio was positively associated with inflammatory mediators for which this ratio may constitute a disease biomarker. Anti-mycobacterial treatment results in a better immune-endocrine scenario for the control of physiopathological processes accompanying disease development and hence implied in clinical recovery.

The implication of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the impaired production of gonadal androgens by patients with pulmonary tuberculosis.

BACKGROUND: The chronic nature of tuberculosis and the protracted immuno-inflammatory reactions are implied in a series of metabolic and immune-endocrine changes accompanying the disease. We explored components from the hypothalamous-pituitary-gonadal axis and their relationship with cytokines involved in disease immunopathology, in male TB patients. METHODS: Plasma samples from 36 active untreated pulmonary TB male patients were used to determine TNF-α, IFN-γ, TGF-ß, IL-6, cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone, testosterone, progesterone, estradiol, luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) by ELISA. Healthy controls corresponded to 21 volunteers without contact with TB patients and similar age (40 ± 16,8 years). Testicular histological samples from necropsies of patients dying from TB were immune-stained for IL-1ß, TNF-α, IL-6 and IFN-γ. The TM3 mouse Leydig cell line was incubated with recombinants TNF-α, IFN-γ and TGF-ß, supernatants were collected and used to measure testosterone by ELISA. RESULTS: Patients showed decreased levels of testosterone in presence of high amounts of LH, together with augmented IFN-γ, IL-6 and TGF-ß levels. Testicular histological sections showed abundant presence of IL-1ß, TNF-α, IL-6 and IFN-γ in interstitial macrophages, Sertoli cells and some spermatogonia. In vitro treatment of Leydig cells with these cytokines led to a remarkable reduction of testosterone production.

Effect of cortisol and/or DHEA on THP1-derived macrophages infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Tuberculosis (TB) is a major health problem requiring an appropriate cell immune response to be controlled. Macrophages play a central role in the response against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). Given our prior studies in which adrenal steroids were found to modify the cellular immune responses from TB patients, it was sensible to analyze the immunomodulatory capability of cortisol and DHEA on macrophages infected with Mtb. The human macrophage-like THP-1 cells were infected with the H37Rv strain of Mtb and treated with Cortisol and DHEA at different doses. We monitored phagocytosis, intracellular-bacterial growth, autophagosoma formation, as well as cytokine gene expression and production. Cultures exposed to cortisol showed a decreased production of IL-1ß, TNF-α, with DHEA being unable to modify the pattern of cytokine production or to reverse the cortisol inhibitory effects. Interestingly the intra-macrophagic bacterial burden was found reduced by DHEA treatment. While this effect was not related to a different cytokine pattern, in terms their production or mRNA expression, DHEA treatment did promote autophagy in Mtb-infected macrophages, irrespective of Cortisol presence. In essence, the better control of Mtb load by DHEA-treated macrophages seems to be dependent on an autophagic mechanism. The present results are relevant for two reasons as autophagy is not only important for clearance of mycobacteria but also for the prevention of tissue damage.

Increased frequency of CD4+ CD25+ FoxP3+ T regulatory cells in pulmonary tuberculosis patients undergoing specific treatment and its relationship with their immune-endocrine profile.

Tuberculosis (TB) is a major health problem requiring an appropriate cell immune response (IR) to be controlled. Since regulatory T cells (Tregs) are relevant in IR regulation, we analyzed Tregs variations throughout the course of TB treatment and its relationship with changes in immune-endocrine mediators dealing with disease immunopathology. The cohort was composed of 41 adult patients, 20 of them completing treatment and follow-up. Patients were bled at diagnosis (T0) and at 2 (T2), 4 (T4), 6 (T6), and 9 months following treatment initiation. Twenty-four age- and sex-matched healthy controls (HCo) were also included. Tregs (flow cytometry) from TB patients were increased at T0 (versus HCo P < 0.05), showing even higher values at T2 (versus T0 P < 0.01) and T4 (versus T0 P < 0.001). While IL-6, IFN-γ, TGF-ß (ELISA), and Cortisol (electrochemiluminescence, EQ) were augmented, DHEA-S (EQ) levels were diminished at T0 with respect to HCo, with cytokines and Cortisol returning to normal values at T9. Tregs correlated positively with IFN-γ (R = 0.868, P < 0.05) at T2 and negatively at T4 (R = -0.795, P < 0.05). Lowered levels of proinflammatory cytokines together with an increased frequency of Tregs of patients undergoing specific treatment might reflect a downmodulatory effect of these cells on the accompanying inflammation.

Levels of inflammatory cytokines, adrenal steroids, and mRNA for GRα, GRß and 11ßHSD1 in TB pleurisy.

Our previous work on the immune-endocrine features of patients with pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) showed markedly decreased plasma levels of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) together with augmented concentrations of Cortisol and pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Studies in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) indicated a lower mRNA α/ß ratio of glucocorticoid receptors -GR- together with a higher 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11ßHSD1) mRNA expression in cases with severe pulmonary TB. Since Pleural TB (PLTB) is a rather benign manifestation of TB, we now analyzed the systemic and local immune-endocrine profile as well as the GRα, GRß, 11ßHSD1 and 11ßHSD2 transcripts in PBMC and pleural effusion mononuclear cells (PEMC) of patients with PLTB. PLTB patients had increased levels of IL-1ß, IL-6 and IFNγ together with reduced Cortisol and DHEA concentrations in pleural fluids. Also, a significantly increased expression of 11ßHSD1 and GRα was found in PEMC compared to PBMC. Findings point out to an appropriate immune response and a substantial inflammatory reaction, wherein the low Cortisol concentrations may be equally effective, because of the increased expression of GRα and 11ßHSD1 transcripts which may optimize the immunomodulatory properties of Cortisol.

Adverse neuro-immune-endocrine interactions in patients with active tuberculosis.

The nervous, endocrine and immune systems play a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis and interact with each other for a successful defensive strategy against injurious agents. However, the situation is different in long-term diseases with marked inflammation, in which defensive mechanisms become altered. In the case of tuberculosis (TB), this is highlighted by several facts: an imbalance of plasma immune and endocrine mediators, that results in an adverse environment for mounting an adequate response against mycobacteria and controlling inflammation; the demonstration that dehidroepiandrosterone (DHEA) secretion by a human adrenal cell line can be inhibited by culture supernatants from Mycobacterium tuberculosis-stimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cells - PBMC - of TB patients, with this effect being partly reverted when neutralizing transforming growth factor-ß in such supernantants; the in vitro effects of adrenal steroids on the specific immune response of PBMC from TB patients, that is a cortisol inhibition of mycobacterial antigen-driven lymphoproliferation and interferon-γ production as well as a suppression of TGF-ß production in DHEA-treated PBMC; and lastly the demonstration that immune and endocrine compounds participating in the regulation of energy sources and immune activity correlated with the consumption state of TB patients. Collectively, immune-endocrine disturbances of TB patients are involved in critical components of disease pathology with implications in the impaired clinical status and unfavorable disease outcome. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled 'Neuroinflammation in neurodegeneration and neurodysfunction'.

TGF-ß neutralization abrogates the inhibited DHEA production mediated by factors released from M. tuberculosis-stimulated PBMC.

Supernatants (SN) from cultures of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) of tuberculosis (TB) patients inhibit dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) secretion by the adrenal cell line NCI-H295R. To analyze whether TGF-ß is involved in this effect, SN of PBMC from healthy controls or patients with severe TB infections, stimulated or not with Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb SN), were added to adrenal cells under basal conditions or following stimulation with forskolin. Cortisol and DHEA concentrations were evaluated in supernatants of the adrenal cells cultured with or without the addition of anti-TGF-ß. Treatment with Mtb SN from TB inhibited DHEA production, and this effect was reversed when SN were treated with anti-TGF-ß. The increase in cortisol production induced by SN from TB patients was not affected by TGF-ß neutralization. Mediators released during the anti-TB immune response differentially modulate steroid production by adrenal cells, and TGF-ß is a cytokine implicated in the inhibition of DHEA production observed in TB.

Changes in the immune and endocrine responses of patients with pulmonary tuberculosis undergoing specific treatment.

We evaluated immune and endocrine status following antituberculosis treatment in HIV-negative patients with newly diagnosed tuberculosis (TB). Treatment led to a decrease in IL-6, IL-1ß, and C-reactive protein levels. Cortisol levels decreased throughout the anti-TB treatment, particularly after 4 months, but changes were less pronounced than those seen in proinflammatory mediators. Specific therapy resulted in increased dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) levels, which peaked after 4 months and started to decline after 6 months of treatment, reaching levels below those detected at inclusion. In contrast, in most patients, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) levels remained unchanged, although a trend toward increased concentrations was observed in a few cases 3 months after the treatment was finished. Specific therapy also resulted in more balanced cortisol/DHEA and cortisol/DHEAS ratios. Etiologic treatment involves favorable immune and endocrine changes, which may account for its beneficial effects.

A multifaceted analysis of immune-endocrine-metabolic alterations in patients with pulmonary tuberculosis.

Our study investigated the circulating levels of factors involved in immune-inflammatory-endocrine-metabolic responses in patients with tuberculosis with the aim of uncovering a relation between certain immune and hormonal patterns, their clinical status and in vitro immune response. The concentration of leptin, adiponectin, IL-6, IL-1ß, ghrelin, C-reactive protein (CRP), cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), and the in vitro immune response (lymphoproliferation and IFN-γ production) was evaluated in 53 patients with active untreated tuberculosis, 27 household contacts and 25 healthy controls, without significant age- or sex-related differences. Patients had a lower body mass index (BMI), reduced levels of leptin and DHEA, and increased concentrations of CRP, IL-6, cortisol, IL-1ß and nearly significant adiponectin values than household contacts and controls. Within tuberculosis patients the BMI and leptin levels were positively correlated and decreased with increasing disease severity, whereas higher concentrations of IL-6, CRP, IL-1ß, cortisol, and ghrelin were seen in cases with moderate to severe tuberculosis. Household contacts had lower DHEA and higher IL-6 levels than controls. Group classification by means of discriminant analysis and the k-nearest neighbor method showed that tuberculosis patients were clearly different from the other groups, having higher levels of CRP and lower DHEA concentration and BMI. Furthermore, plasma leptin levels were positively associated with the basal in vitro IFN-γ production and the ConA-driven proliferation of cells from tuberculosis patients. Present alterations in the communication between the neuro-endocrine and immune systems in tuberculosis may contribute to disease worsening.

mRNA expression of alpha and beta isoforms of glucocorticoid receptor in peripheral blood mononuclear cells of patients with tuberculosis and its relation with components of the immunoendocrine response.

We have analyzed the expression of glucocorticoid receptor (GR) isoforms by real time RT-qPCR in PBMCs from 19 controls (HCo) and 28 TB patients (8 mild; 12 moderate; 8 severe), HIV(-) and similar sex and age distribution. mRNA hGRα/ß ratios were found higher in TB patients respect to those in HCo. However, when analyzing for disease severity such overall trend was at the expense of mild and moderate patients, with severe cases showing a lower mRNA hGRα/ß ratio with respect to the other patient groups. This suggested some degree of resistance to endogenous glucocorticoids in patients with severe TB, since hGRαα dimer mediates the biological functions of GC, with the GRß isoform acting as an inhibitor of GC activity. Levels of IL-6, IL-18, IFN-γ and Cortisol were significantly increased in severe and moderate cases, whereas DHEA values were found decreased in them (p<0.05 respect to HCo). Analysis on the relationship between plasma levels of these immuno-endocrine mediators with the mRNA expression of hGRα and hGRß showed that IL-6 was positively associated with hGRα in mild TB patients (p<0.01), whereas a negative correlation between IFN-γ and hGRß was observed in severe cases (p<0.01). As regard to hormones, DHEA was positively associated with hGRα in moderate and severe cases (p<0.01). This group also showed a negative correlation between hGRα and Cortisol/DHEA ratios (p<0.05). Changes in the systemic levels of cytokine and adrenal hormones are likely to affect GR expression in a differential fashion and according to the amount of pulmonary involvement.

A clinical correlate of the dysregulated immunoendocrine response in human tuberculosis.

Wasting is a prominent feature in tuberculosis (TB), but its underlying mechanisms are incompletely understood. Immunoendocrine disturbances may be linked to the consumption state of TB patients, since hormones and cytokines can affect energy expenditure and metabolism. To approach this possibility, we have determined leptin, IL-18, and adrenal steroid plasma levels and body mass index (BMI) in newly diagnosed patients with mild, moderate and severe pulmonary TB, household contacts (HHC), and healthy controls (HCO). HHC displayed higher levels of leptin than HCO and TB patients. TB patients showed a gradual decrease in BMI and leptin concentrations with increasing disease severity, whereas a positive correlation between this hormone and BMI was found in the HCO group. Cortisol concentrations tended to be higher in TB patients. DHEA levels were decreased in TB patients and to a lesser extent in HHC, whereas IL-18 concentration was significantly increased in patients with severe disease. Since HHC are known to cause a latent subclinical infection, it seems clear that controlled tuberculous infection and manifested TB disease are accompanied by a dissimilar profile of immunoendocrine markers.

Immunoendocrine alterations during human tuberculosis as an integrated view of disease pathology.

Tuberculosis (TB) is a chronic infectious disease accompanied by excessive and/or prolonged cytokine production, which might affect the immunoendocrine communication and favor the establishment of an adverse state with important alterations in essential biological functions. Studies in blood from TB patients showed increased levels of interferon gamma (IFN-gamma), interleukin 10 (IL-10), and IL-6, accompanied by a modest increase in the levels of cortisol, prolactin, and thyroid hormones and markedly augmented concentrations of growth hormone. Conversely, testosterone and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) levels were profoundly decreased, resulting in an increased cortisol/DHEA ratio. The finding that culture supernatants from Mycobacterium-tuberculosis-stimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of TB patients inhibit DHEA secretion by a human adrenal cell line indicates that immune cells from these patients can directly affect the synthesis of this hormone. Supporting the existence of bidirectional interactions, in vitro treatment of PBMCs from TB patients with physiological concentrations of cortisol inhibited mycobacterial antigen-driven lymphoproliferation and IFN-gamma production, whereas DHEA suppressed transforming growth factor beta production from cases with progressive disease. Further analysis showed that plasma DHEA levels correlated positively with the in vitroproduction of IFN-gamma by mycobacterial-stimulated PBMCs, and the cortisol/DHEA ratio was inversely correlated with IFN-gamma production. Lastly, it was also shown that the immunoendocrine imbalance in TB patients was associated with weight loss, which in turn correlated with the impairment on their specific in vitro cellular immune responses. These immunoendocrine interactions may play a detrimental role during TB, in terms of the development of protective immune responses, control of tissue damage and metabolic disorders, being implicated in disease aggravation and the 'classic' TB consumption.

The adrenal steroid response during tuberculosis and its effects on the mycobacterial-driven IFN-gamma production of patients and their household contacts.

Earlier studies revealed that patients with tuberculosis (TB) have imbalanced immunoendocrine responses and that adrenal steroids [cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)] can modify their specific cell-mediated immune response. Because most household contacts (HHCs) of contagious TB patients develop a subclinical and self-controlled process (latent TB), we studied some features of their immune and endocrine responses, particularly those related to the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Nineteen HHCs, 24 untreated TB patients (15 moderate, 9 advanced), and 18 healthy controls of similar age were studied. Patients had increased and reduced levels of cortisol and DHEA, respectively. DHEA levels were also reduced in HHCs. Stimulation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) with Mycobacterium tuberculosis sonicate resulted in increased in vitro lymphoproliferation in HHCs, while advanced patients showed the lowest response. Significantly higher amounts of interferon (IFN)-gamma were detected in supernatants from stimulated PBMC of HHCs when compared to controls and TB patients. Addition of cortisol to the cultures inhibited mycobacterial antigen-driven IFN-gamma production in all groups, although HHC supernatant contained significantly higher concentrations. In contrast, addition of DHEA to cultures of cells from HHCs resulted in increased IFN-gamma levels. These results suggest the existence of a particular immunoendocrine relation assuring a preserved IFN-gamma production in healthy housemates of TB patients.