P-glycoprotein protein expression versus functionality at the blood-brain barrier using immunohistochemistry, microdialysis and mathematical modeling.

A proper understanding of P-gp mediated transport (functionality) at the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and beyond is needed to interpret, understand and predict pharmacokinetic (PK)- pharmacodynamic (PD) relationships of CNS drugs that are substrates of P-gp, especially since P-gp functionality may be different in different conditions. Often, P-gp expression is taken as a biomarker of transporter functionality. The aim of our study was to investigate whether brain capillary protein expression of P-gp is associated with changes in P-gp mediated drug efflux at the BBB. Status Epilepticus (SE) was induced by kainate in male rats. During 3-5 weeks post SE, hippocampal P-gp expression was determined using immunohistochemistry, while BBB P-gp functionality was assessed by microdialysis of quinidine, in absence and presence of the P-gp blocker tariquidar. The data were analyzed using Non-linear Mixed Effect Modeling implemented in NONMEM. Following SE, changes in brain capillary P-gp expression were observed. However, no relation between BBB P-gp protein expression and BBB P-gp mediated drug efflux was found. This warrants a critical view on the interpretation of reported changes in BBB P-gp expression as a biomarker of BBB P-gp functionality.

A meta-analysis of Hodgkin lymphoma reveals 19p13.3 TCF3 as a novel susceptibility locus.

Recent genome-wide association studies (GWAS) of Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) have identified associations with genetic variation at both HLA and non-HLA loci; however, much of heritable HL susceptibility remains unexplained. Here we perform a meta-analysis of three HL GWAS totaling 1,816 cases and 7,877 controls followed by replication in an independent set of 1,281 cases and 3,218 controls to find novel risk loci. We identify a novel variant at 19p13.3 associated with HL (rs1860661; odds ratio (OR)=0.81, 95% confidence interval (95% CI) = 0.76-0.86, P(combined) = 3.5 × 10(-10)), located in intron 2 of TCF3 (also known as E2A), a regulator of B- and T-cell lineage commitment known to be involved in HL pathogenesis. This meta-analysis also notes associations between previously published loci at 2p16, 5q31, 6p31, 8q24 and 10p14 and HL subtypes. We conclude that our data suggest a link between the 19p13.3 locus, including TCF3, and HL risk.

Phylogeographic and population genetic analyses reveal Pleistocene isolation followed by high gene flow in a wide ranging, but endangered, freshwater mussel.

Freshwater organisms of North America have had their contemporary genetic structure shaped by vicariant events, especially Pleistocene glaciations. Life history traits promoting dispersal and gene flow continue to shape population genetic structure. Cumberlandia monodonta, a widespread but imperiled (IUCN listed as endangered) freshwater mussel, was examined to determine genetic diversity and population genetic structure throughout its range. Mitochondrial DNA sequences and microsatellite loci were used to measure genetic diversity and simulate demographic events during the Pleistocene using approximate Bayesian computation (ABC) to test explicit hypotheses explaining the evolutionary history of current populations. A phylogeny and molecular clock suggested past isolation created two mtDNA lineages during the Pleistocene that are now widespread. Two distinct groups were also detected with microsatellites. ABC simulations indicated the presence of two glacial refugia and post-glacial admixture of them followed by simultaneous dispersal throughout the current range of the species. The Ouachita population is distinct from others and has the lowest genetic diversity, indicating that this is a peripheral population of the species. Gene flow within this species has maintained high levels of genetic diversity in most populations; however, all populations have experienced fragmentation. Extirpation from the center of its range likely has isolated remaining populations due to the geographic distances among them.

Pharmacological ascorbate with gemcitabine for the control of metastatic and node-positive pancreatic cancer (PACMAN): results from a phase I clinical trial.

BACKGROUND: Treatment for pancreatic cancer with pharmacological ascorbate (ascorbic acid, vitamin C) decreases tumor progression in preclinical models. A phase I clinical trial was performed to establish safety and tolerability of pharmacological ascorbate combined with gemcitabine in patients with biopsy-proven stage IV pancreatic adenocarcinoma. DESIGN: Nine subjects received twice-weekly intravenous ascorbate (15-125 g) employing Simon's accelerated titration design to achieve a targeted post-infusion plasma level of ≥350 mg/dL (≥20 mM). Subjects received concurrent gemcitabine. Disease burden, weight, performance status, hematologic and metabolic laboratories, time to progression and overall survival were monitored. RESULTS: Mean plasma ascorbate trough levels were significantly higher than baseline (1.46 ± 0.02 vs. 0.78 ± 0.09 mg/dL, i.e., 83 vs. 44 µM, p < 0.001). Adverse events attributable to the drug combination were rare and included diarrhea (n = 4) and dry mouth (n = 6). Dose-limiting criteria were not met for this study. Mean survival of subjects completing at least two cycles (8 weeks) of therapy was 13 ± 2 months. CONCLUSIONS: Data suggest pharmacologic ascorbate administered concurrently with gemcitabine is well tolerated. Initial data from this small sampling suggest some efficacy. Further studies powered to determine efficacy should be conducted.

Microneedle arrays for the transcutaneous immunization of diphtheria and influenza in BALB/c mice.

Transcutaneous immunization (TCI) is limited by poor permeation of macromolecules across the skin. Microneedle arrays form transient conduits and enhance the transport of vaccine molecules across the skin barrier without pain sensation. Here we investigated in mouse the immune responses after TCI using two model antigens, diphtheria toxoid (DT) and influenza subunit vaccine. The electric applicator enabled shorter microneedle (300 microm) to pierce mouse skin effectively, as shown by Trypan blue staining and trans-epidermal water loss measurement. The vaccines were topically applied with and without cholera toxin (CT) on microneedle-treated skin. In DT TCI, microneedle array pretreatment of the skin was essential to achieve substantial IgG and toxin-neutralizing antibody titers. Addition of CT further boosted the immune response to similar levels as observed after subcutaneous injection of AlPO4-adsorbed DT (DT-alum). In contrast, microneedle array pretreatment showed no effect on the immune response to plain influenza vaccine. This response was strongly improved by inclusion of CT, independent of microneedle treatment. These results indicate that TCI of DT and CT with microneedle treatment results in comparable protection as injection of DT-alum, and TCI of influenza vaccine adjuvanted with CT is superior to the injection of plain vaccine.

Tagging single-nucleotide polymorphisms in candidate oncogenes and susceptibility to ovarian cancer.

Low-moderate risk alleles that are relatively common in the population may explain a significant proportion of the excess familial risk of ovarian cancer (OC) not attributed to highly penetrant genes. In this study, we evaluated the risks of OC associated with common germline variants in five oncogenes (BRAF, ERBB2, KRAS, NMI and PIK3CA) known to be involved in OC development. Thirty-four tagging SNPs in these genes were genotyped in approximately 1800 invasive OC cases and 3000 controls from population-based studies in Denmark, the United Kingdom and the United States. We found no evidence of disease association for SNPs in BRAF, KRAS, ERBB2 and PIK3CA when OC was considered as a single disease phenotype; but after stratification by histological subtype, we found borderline evidence of association for SNPs in KRAS and BRAF with mucinous OC and in ERBB2 and PIK3CA with endometrioid OC. For NMI, we identified a SNP (rs11683487) that was associated with a decreased risk of OC (unadjusted P(dominant)=0.004). We then genotyped rs11683487 in another 1097 cases and 1792 controls from an additional three case-control studies from the United States. The combined odds ratio was 0.89 (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.80-0.99) and remained statistically significant (P(dominant)=0.032). We also identified two haplotypes in ERBB2 associated with an increased OC risk (P(global)=0.034) and a haplotype in BRAF that had a protective effect (P(global)=0.005). In conclusion, these data provide borderline evidence of association for common allelic variation in the NMI with risk of epithelial OC.

Validating genetic risk associations for ovarian cancer through the international Ovarian Cancer Association Consortium.

The search for genetic variants associated with ovarian cancer risk has focused on pathways including sex steroid hormones, DNA repair, and cell cycle control. The Ovarian Cancer Association Consortium (OCAC) identified 10 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in genes in these pathways, which had been genotyped by Consortium members and a pooled analysis of these data was conducted. Three of the 10 SNPs showed evidence of an association with ovarian cancer at P< or =0.10 in a log-additive model: rs2740574 in CYP3A4 (P=0.011), rs1805386 in LIG4 (P=0.007), and rs3218536 in XRCC2 (P=0.095). Additional genotyping in other OCAC studies was undertaken and only the variant in CYP3A4, rs2740574, continued to show an association in the replication data among homozygous carriers: OR(homozygous(hom))=2.50 (95% CI 0.54-11.57, P=0.24) with 1406 cases and 2827 controls. Overall, in the combined data the odds ratio was 2.81 among carriers of two copies of the minor allele (95% CI 1.20-6.56, P=0.017, p(het) across studies=0.42) with 1969 cases and 3491 controls. There was no association among heterozygous carriers. CYP3A4 encodes a key enzyme in oestrogen metabolism and our finding between rs2740574 and risk of ovarian cancer suggests that this pathway may be involved in ovarian carcinogenesis. Additional follow-up is warranted.

Improved piercing of microneedle arrays in dermatomed human skin by an impact insertion method.

An electrical applicator was designed, which can pierce short microneedles into the skin with a predefined velocity. Three different shapes of microneedles were used, namely 300 mum assembled hollow metal microneedle arrays, 300 mum solid metal microneedle arrays and 245 mum hollow silicon microneedle arrays. The latter are available as 4x4, 6x6 and 9x9 arrays. When using a velocity of 1 or 3 m/s reproducible piercing of dermatomed and full thickness human skin was evident from the appearance of blue spots on the dermal side of the skin after Trypan Blue treatment and the presence of fluorescently labeled particles in dermatomed skin. Manual piercing did not result in the appearance of blue spots. Transport studies revealed that i) piercing of microneedles with a predefined velocity into human skin resulted in a drastic enhancement of the Cascade Blue (CB, Mw 538) transport, ii) A higher piercing velocity resulted in a higher CB transport rate, iii) The CB transport rate was also dependent on the shape of the microneedles and iv) no difference in transport rate was observed between 4x4, 6x6 and 9x9 hollow silicon microneedle arrays.

Assembled microneedle arrays enhance the transport of compounds varying over a large range of molecular weight across human dermatomed skin.

In this study, we demonstrate the feasibility to use microneedle arrays manufactured from commercially available 30G hypodermal needles to enhance the transport of compounds up to a molecular weight of 72 kDa. Piercing of human dermatomed skin with microneedle arrays was studied by Trypan Blue staining on the SC side of the skin and transepidermal water loss measurements (TEWL). Passive transport studies were conducted with Cascade Blue (CB, Mw 538), Dextran-Cascade Blue (DCB, Mw 10 kDa), and FITC coupled Dextran (FITC-Dex, Mw 72 kDa). Microneedle arrays with needle lengths of 900, 700 and 550 micro m are able to pierce dermatomed human skin as evident from (a) the appearance of blue spots on the dermal side of the skin after Trypan Blue treatment and (b) elevated TEWL levels after piercing compared to non-treated human dermatomed skin. Microneedles with a length of 300 micro m did not pierce human skin in vitro. Transport studies performed with model compounds ranging from 538 Da to 72 kDa revealed that pretreatment with microneedle arrays enhanced the transport across dermatomed human skin. However, some degradation was also observed for FITC-Dex and DCB. We conclude that assembled microneedle arrays can be used to deliver compounds through the skin up to a molecular weight of at least 72 kDa.

Selected contribution: Hyperthermia-induced intestinal permeability and the role of oxidative and nitrosative stress.

The purpose of this study was to characterize intestinal permeability changes over a range of physiologically relevant body temperatures in vivo and in vitro. Initially, FITC-dextran (4,000 Da), a large fluorescent molecule, was loaded into the small intestine of anesthetized rats. The rats were then maintained at approximately 37 degrees C or heated over 90 min to a core body temperature of approximately 41, approximately 41.5, or approximately 42.5 degrees C. Permeability was greater in the 42.5 degrees C group compared with the 37, 41, or 41.5 degrees C groups. Histological analysis revealed intestinal epithelial damage in heated groups. Everted intestinal sacs were then used to further characterize hyperthermia-induced intestinal permeability and to study the potential role of oxidative and nitrosative stress. Increased permeability to 4,000-Da FITC-dextran in both small intestinal and colonic sacs was observed at a temperature of 41.5-42 degrees C compared with 37 degrees C, along with widespread intestinal epithelial damage. Administration of antioxidant enzyme mimics or a nitric oxide synthase inhibitor did not reduce permeability due to heat stress, and tissue concentrations of a lipid peroxidation product were not altered by heat stress, suggesting that oxidative and nitrosative stress were not likely mediators of this phenomenon in vitro. In conclusion, hyperthermia produced increased permeability and marked intestinal epithelial damage both in vivo and in vitro, suggesting that thermal disruption of epithelial membranes contributes to the intestinal barrier dysfunction manifested with heat stress.

CpG DNA induces cyclooxygenase-2 expression and prostaglandin production.

Unmethylated CpG motifs found in bacterial DNA are potent activators of the innate and acquired immune systems, and rapidly induce the production of proinflammatory cytokines. We hypothesized that CpG DNA may also elicit the production of prostaglandins (PG), which are central lipid mediators of the immune and inflammatory response. To test our hypothesis, we stimulated murine spleen cells and RAW 264.7 murine macrophage cells with CpG DNA and assessed the effects on the PG synthesis pathway. Compared to control, DNA-containing CpG motifs induced >5-fold increase in PGE (2) production and rapidly up-regulated cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) at both the mRNA and protein level. CpG DNA was an extremely strong inducer of COX-2 as concentrations as low as 3 ng/ml induced COX-2 protein expression. The CpG DNA-induced PGE (2) down-regulated the immune response elicited by CpG. Blockade of PGE (2) production with selective COX-2 inhibitors or neutralizing anti-PGE (2) antibody markedly enhanced IFN-gamma secretion in vitro from CpG DNA-stimulated spleen cells. Moreover, selective COX-2 inhibition increased CpG DNA-induced IFN-gamma secretion in vivo. Inhibition of COX-2 also increased CpG DNA-induced lytic activity of NK cells. Taken together, these data indicate that DNA containing CpG motifs is a potent inducer of COX-2 and PGE (2) production. CpG-induced PG may subsequently down-regulate the immune and inflammatory responses elicited by the CpG DNA.

Apolipoprotein E protects against neuropathology induced by a high-fat diet and maintains the integrity of the blood-brain barrier during aging.

SUMMARY: The present study provides evidence that chronic intake of a high-fat diet induces a dramatic extravasation of immunoglobulins, indicating alterations in blood-brain barrier (BBB) functioning, in the brains of apolipoprotein E (apoE)-knockout mice, but not of C57Bl/6 control mice. Using sodium fluorescein as a marker for the permeability of the BBB, we found additional support for age-related disturbances of BBB function in apoE-knockout mice. Behavioral analysis of apoE-knockout mice compared with C57Bl/6 mice indicated that they were also less efficient in acquiring the spatial Morris water maze task. Furthermore, apoE-knockout mice are known to develop severe atherosclerosis, which is exacerbated with a high-fat diet. We therefore compared the apoE-knockout mice with the apoE3-Leiden transgenic mice, which are known to develop atherosclerosis. However, apoE3-Leiden mice that were kept on a high-fat, high-cholesterol diet and that developed atherosclerosis to an extent similar to the apoE-knockout mice, showed no signs of BBB disturbances. These results indicate for the first time that apoE plays an essential role in the maintenance of the integrity of the BBB during aging and that it protects the brain from neuropathology induced by a high-fat diet. We therefore hypothesize that the role of apoE in the maintenance of the integrity of the BBB may be the mechanism by which apoE affects the progression of neurodegeneration, as seen in Alzheimer's disease.

A genome screen of families with multiple cases of prostate cancer: evidence of genetic heterogeneity.

We conducted a genomewide screen for prostate cancer-susceptibility genes on the basis of data from 98 families from the United States and Canada that had three or more verified diagnoses of prostate cancer among first- and second-degree relatives. We found a statistically significant excess of markers for which affected relatives exhibited modest amounts of excess allele-sharing; however, no single chromosomal region contained markers with excess allele-sharing of sufficient magnitude to indicate unequivocal evidence of linkage. Positive linkage signals of nominal statistical significance were found in two regions (5p-q and 12p) that have been identified as weakly positive in other data sets and in region 19p, which has not been identified previously. All these signals were considerably stronger for analyses restricted to families with mean age at onset below the median than for analyses of families with mean age at onset above the median. The data provided little support for any of the putative prostate cancer-susceptibility genes identified in other linkage studies.

Il-10 is a central regulator of cyclooxygenase-2 expression and prostaglandin production.

IL-10 is a potent anti-inflammatory and immune regulatory cytokine. IL-10(-/-) mice produce exaggerated amounts of inflammatory cytokines when stimulated with LPS, indicating that endogenous IL-10 is a central regulator of inflammatory cytokine production in vivo. PGs are lipid mediators that are also produced in large amounts during the inflammatory response. To study the role of IL-10 in the regulation of PG production during the acute inflammatory response, we evaluated LPS-induced cyclooxygenase (COX) expression and PG production in wild-type (wt) and IL-10(-/-) mice. LPS-induced PGE(2) production from IL-10(-/-) spleen cells was 5.6-fold greater than that from wt spleen cells. LPS stimulation resulted in the induction of COX-2 mRNA and protein in both wt and IL-10(-/-) spleen cells; however, the magnitude of increase in COX-2 mRNA was 5.5-fold greater in IL-10(-/-) mice as compared with wt mice. COX-1 protein levels were not affected by LPS stimulation in either wt or IL-10(-/-) mice. Neutralization of IFN-gamma, TNF-alpha, or IL-12 markedly decreased the induction of COX-2 in IL-10(-/-) spleen cells, suggesting that increased inflammatory cytokine production mediates much of the COX-2 induction in IL-10(-/-) mice. Treatment of IL-10(-/-) mice with low doses of LPS resulted in a marked induction of COX-2 mRNA in the spleen, whereas wt mice had minimal expression of COX-2 mRNA. These findings indicate that, in addition to IL-10's central role in the regulation of inflammatory cytokines, endogenous IL-10 is an important regulator of PG production in the response to LPS.

The use of self-efficacy enhancing methods in diabetes education in the Netherlands.

According to the social cognitive theory of Bandura, self-efficacy predicts behavorial change. Bandura notes that self-efficacy is based on four major sources of information: performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion and self-evaluation. This exploratory study examined the use of these four sources of information by Dutch nurse diabetes educators to enhance self-efficacy among people with diabetes mellitus. A survey questionnaire was sent to all Dutch nurse members of the European Association of Diabetes Educators (EADE) asking about the use of self-efficacy-enhancing methods, and four different educational programs were observed. Survey respondents said that performance accomplishments and verbal persuasion were often used, vicarious experience was hardly ever used, and the use of self-evaluation varied. The observations gave a different picture: only verbal persuasion was observed often; the other three sources were hardly ever used. Clearly, self-efficacy-enhancing educational methods are not systematically used in the Netherlands and there is little variety in the methods used. More varied methods of enhancing self-efficacy need to be developed and implemented in diabetes education programs.

IL-10 deficiency increases superoxide and endothelial dysfunction during inflammation.

Little is known about the role of interleukin-10 (IL-10), an anti-inflammatory cytokine, in blood vessels. We used IL-10-deficient mice (IL-10 -/-) to examine the hypothesis that IL-10 protects endothelial function after lipopolysaccharide (LPS) treatment. The responses of carotid arteries were studied in vitro 6 h after injection of a relatively low dose of LPS (10 microgram ip). In IL-10 -/- mice, the maximum relaxation to ACh (3 microM) was 56 +/- 6% (means +/- SE) after LPS injection and 84 +/- 4% after vehicle injection (P < 0.05). Thus endothelium-dependent relaxation was impaired in carotid arteries from IL-10 -/- mice after LPS injection. In contrast, this dose of LPS did not alter relaxation to ACh in vessels from wild-type (IL-10 +/+) mice. Relaxation to nitroprusside and papaverine was similar in arteries from both IL-10 -/- and IL-10 +/+ mice after vehicle or LPS injection. Because inflammation is associated with increased levels of reactive oxygen species, we also tested the hypothesis that superoxide contributes to the impairment of endothelial function by LPS in the absence of IL-10. Results using confocal microscopy and hydroethidine indicated that levels of superoxide are elevated in carotid arteries from IL-10 -/- mice compared with IL-10 +/+ mice after LPS injection. The impaired relaxation of arteries from IL-10 -/- mice after LPS injection was restored to normal by polyethylene glycol-suspended superoxide dismutase (50 U/ml) or allopurinol (1 mM), an inhibitor of xanthine oxidase. These data provide direct evidence that IL-10 protects endothelial function after an acute inflammatory stimulus by limiting local increases in superoxide. The source of superoxide in this model may be xanthine oxidase.

Multidrug resistance protein 1 protects the choroid plexus epithelium and contributes to the blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier.

Multidrug resistance protein 1 (MRP1) is a transporter protein that helps to protect normal cells and tumor cells against the influx of certain xenobiotics. We previously showed that Mrp1 protects against cytotoxic drugs at the testis-blood barrier, the oral epithelium, and the kidney urinary collecting duct tubules. Here, we generated Mrp1/Mdr1a/Mdr1b triple-knockout (TKO) mice, and used them together with Mdr1a/Mdr1b double-knockout (DKO) mice to study the contribution of Mrp1 to the tissue distribution and pharmacokinetics of etoposide. We observed increased toxicity in the TKO mice, which accumulated etoposide in brown adipose tissue, colon, salivary gland, heart, and the female urogenital system. Immunohistochemical staining revealed the presence of Mrp1 in the oviduct, uterus, salivary gland, and choroid plexus (CP) epithelium. To explore the transport function of Mrp1 in the CP epithelium, we used TKO and DKO mice cannulated for cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). We show here that the lack of Mrp1 protein causes etoposide levels to increase about 10-fold in the CSF after intravenous administration of the drug. Our results indicate that Mrp1 helps to limit tissue distribution of certain drugs and contributes to the blood-CSF drug-permeability barrier.

Vascular effects of lipopolysaccharide are enhanced in interleukin-10-deficient mice.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The role in blood vessels of interleukin-10 (IL-10), a potent anti-inflammatory cytokine, is not known. Using mice with targeted deletion of the gene for IL-10 (IL-10(-/-)), we examined the hypothesis that IL-10 is a major modulator of the vascular effects of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Methods-We examined in vitro responses of carotid arteries obtained from wild-type (129/SvEv or C57BL/6; IL-10(+/+)) and IL-10-deficient mice 6 hours after injection of a relatively low dose of LPS (10 microgram). RESULTS: Contraction of the carotid artery in response to U46619 was impaired in IL-10-deficient mice treated with LPS compared with LPS-treated controls. After LPS, U46619 (0.03 and 0.1 microgram/mL) contracted the carotid artery by 0.11+/-0.02 (mean+/-SEM) and 0.38+/-0.03 g in wild-type (n=10) and 0.03+/-0.01 and 0.19+/-0.03 g in IL-10-deficient (n=8) mice (P<0.05 versus control). Aminoguanidine, an inhibitor of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), had no significant effect on contraction of the carotid artery from LPS-treated control mice but restored contraction of the carotid artery in response to U46619 in IL-10-deficient mice to levels seen in wild-type mice. Similar findings were obtained when phenylephrine was used as a vasoconstricting agent. These findings indicate that LPS produces much greater impairment of contractile responses of the carotid artery in IL-10-deficient mice than in control mice. Impaired contractile function was eliminated by aminoguanidine, suggesting that expression of iNOS is enhanced in arteries from IL-10-deficient mice. In carotid arteries from animals injected with LPS, reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) products for iNOS were found more frequently in IL-10-deficient mice than in wild-type mice. RT-PCR products for iNOS were not present in arteries from vehicle-treated animals (IL-10-deficient or wild-type mice). CONCLUSIONS: This is the first evidence that endogenous IL-10 is a major determinant of the effects of LPS on vascular tone. The results suggest that impaired constrictor responses of the carotid artery after LPS in IL-10-deficient mice are mediated by enhanced expression of iNOS.

Interleukin-10 modulates the severity of hypersensitivity pneumonitis in mice.

Hypersensitivity pneumonitis (HP) is an inflammatory lung disease characterized by granuloma formation. We recently showed that interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) is essential for inflammation and granuloma formation in HP. Interleukin-10 (IL-10) counteracts many of the biologic effects of IFN-gamma, suggesting that IL-10 modulates inflammation and granuloma formation in HP. We compared the expression of HP in C57BL/6 mice that lack IL-10 (IL-10 knockout [KO]) with that in wild-type (WT) littermates. IL-10 KO and WT mice were exposed to the thermophilic bacteria Saccharopolyspora rectivirgula or to saline alone for 3 wk. The IL-10 KO mice had higher cell counts in their bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (2.85 +/- 0. 43 x 10(6)) than did WT mice (1.4 +/- 0.3 x 10(6)/ml; P < 0.03), with a more prominent neutrophil response. They also had greater inflammation after antigen exposure than did the WT mice (P < 0. 0001). There was increased upregulation of IFN-gamma, IL-1, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) mRNAs in the lungs of IL-10 KO mice. Adenovirus-mediated gene transfer of IL-10 to the liver of IL-10 KO mice reduced the inflammation from that seen in WT mice. These studies show that IL-10 has important anti-inflammatory properties in HP, and that lack of this cytokine leads to a more severe granulomatous inflammatory response.

Influence of iron chelation on the antioxidant activity of flavonoids.

The antioxidant activity of flavonoids is believed to be caused by a combination of iron chelation and free radical scavenging activities. Several authors have attempted to separate the iron chelation and scavenging activity of flavonoids in order to study these processes individually. There are, however, several contradictions in the literature, and the outcome largely depends on the experimental conditions and the type of assay used. In order to investigate the contribution of iron chelation to the antioxidant activity of flavonoids, we determined the antioxidant activity of a group of flavonoids from several subclasses in an iron-independent (azobisamidinopropane, [ABAP]) lipid peroxidation (LPO) process and compared them with data from an iron-dependent (Fe2+/ascorbate) LPO process, which we determined earlier. These LPO data were compared with oxidation potentials, which were earlier found to have a good correlation with the scavenging activity of flavonoids. For most flavonoids, it was found that there was no difference between the LPO assays, indicating that iron chelation is either a constant factor among the flavonoids or is not significant in these types of assays. The IC50 values in the iron-independent LPO assay showed an excellent correlation with the oxidation potentials (Ep/2). Therefore, it can be concluded that for the majority of flavonoids tested, iron chelation does not play a role in the antioxidant activity in microsomal lipid peroxidation.