Effectiveness of pedalling retraining in reducing bilateral pedal force asymmetries.

Previous studies have been limited to describe asymmetries during pedalling and suggest possible repercussion on performance and/or injury risks. However, few studies have presented strategies to mitigate asymmetries. The purpose of this study was to assess the effectiveness of a pedalling retraining intervention to reduce bilateral pedal force asymmetries. Twenty cyclists were assessed and 10 enrolled in a pedalling retraining method receiving visual and verbal feedback of pedal forces. The asymmetry index was computed for comparison of bilateral peak pedal forces and used during retraining (12 trials at 70% of peak power). Significantly larger asymmetry was observed for asymmetrical cyclists at the first three trials (P < 0.01 and ES = 1.39), which was reduced when post-retraining was compared to measures from symmetrical cyclists (P = 0.69 and ES = 0.18). Cyclists with larger asymmetry (>20%) in bilateral pedal forces reduce their asymmetries using sessions of pedalling retraining and achieve asymmetry indices similar to symmetrical cyclists.

Three-dimensional kinematics of competitive and recreational cyclists across different workloads during cycling.

Although the link between sagittal plane motion and exercise intensity has been highlighted, no study assessed if different workloads lead to changes in three-dimensional cycling kinematics. This study compared three-dimensional joint and segment kinematics between competitive and recreational road cyclists across different workloads. Twenty-four road male cyclists (12 competitive and 12 recreational) underwent an incremental workload test to determine aerobic peak power output. In a following session, cyclists performed four trials at sub-maximal workloads (65, 75, 85 and 95% of their aerobic peak power output) at 90 rpm of pedalling cadence. Mean hip adduction, thigh rotation, shank rotation, pelvis inclination (latero-lateral and anterior-posterior), spine inclination and rotation were computed at the power section of the crank cycle (12 o'clock to 6 o'clock crank positions) using three-dimensional kinematics. Greater lateral spine inclination (p < .01, 5-16%, effect sizes = 0.09-0.25) and larger spine rotation (p < .01, 16-29%, effect sizes = 0.31-0.70) were observed for recreational cyclists than competitive cyclists across workload trials. No differences in segment and joint angles were observed from changes in workload with significant individual effects on spine inclination (p < .01). No workload effects were found in segment angles but differences, although small, existed when comparing competitive road to recreational cyclists. When conducting assessment of joint and segment motions, workload between 65 and 95% of individual cyclists' peak power output could be used.

Joint Torques and Patellofemoral Force During Single-Leg Assisted and Unassisted Cycling.

CONTEXT: Unassisted single-leg cycling should be replaced by assisted single-leg cycling, given that this last approach has potential to mimic joint kinetics and kinematics from double-leg cycling. However, there is need to test if assisting devices during pedaling effectively replicate joint forces and torque from double-leg cycling. OBJECTIVES: To compare double-leg, single-leg assisted, and unassisted cycling in terms of lower-limb kinetics and kinematics. DESIGN: Cross-sectional crossover. SETTING: Laboratory. PARTICIPANTS: 14 healthy nonathletes. INTERVENTIONS: Two double-leg cycling trials (240 ± 23 W) and 2 single-leg trials (120 ± 11 W) at 90 rpm were performed for 2 min using a bicycle attached to a cycle trainer. Measurements of pedal force and joint kinematics of participants' right lower limb were performed during double- and single-leg trials. For the single-leg assisted trial, a custom-made adaptor was used to attach 10 kg of weight to the contralateral crank. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Peak hip, knee, and ankle torques (flexors and extensors) along with knee-flexion angle and peak patellofemoral compressive force. RESULTS: Reduced peak hip-extensor torque (10%) and increased peak knee-flexor torque (157%) were observed at the single-leg assisted cycling compared with the double-leg cycling. No differences were found for peak patellofemoral compressive force or knee-flexion angle comparing double-leg with single-leg assisted cycling. However, single-leg unassisted cycling resulted in larger peak patellofemoral compressive force (28%) and lower knee-flexion angle (3%) than double-leg cycling. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that although single-leg assisted cycling differs for joint torques, it replicates knee loads from double-leg cycling.

Comparison of kinetics, kinematics, and electromyography during single-leg assisted and unassisted cycling.

To use single-leg cycling training for varying populations, it is important to understand whether a counterweight attached to the contralateral crank during single-leg cycling drills replicates the effects of the opposite leg in the ipsilateral leg. Therefore, we compared single-leg assisted cycling using a counterweight on the contralateral crank for joint kinetics, kinematics, and lower-limb muscle activation. Fourteen healthy nonathletes performed 2 bilateral cycling trials (240 ± 23 W and 90 ± 2 rpm) and 2 single-leg trials (120 ± 11 W and 90 ± 2 rpm) for measurements of pedal force, joint kinematics, and muscle activation of their right lower limb. For 1 single-leg trial, a custom-made adaptor was used to attach 10 kg of weight to the contralateral leg. Total force applied on the pedal, pedal force effectiveness, the mean joint angles and range of motion, mechanical work at the crank, hip, knee, and ankle joints, electromyography, pedaling cadence, and right crank mechanical work were assessed. Biceps femoris (87%), vastus lateralis (15%), rectus femoris (57%), tibialis anterior (57%), and gastrocnemius medialis (12%) activations were larger in the single-leg assisted trial compared with the bilateral trial. Lower total pedal force (17%) and increased index of effectiveness (16%) also indicate mechanical differences in single-leg cycling using a counterweight on the contralateral crank than conventional bilateral cycling. Single-leg assisted training should be used with caution because of potential differences in muscle recruitment and pedaling kinetics compared with bilateral cycling.

Assessment of bilateral asymmetry in cycling using a commercial instrumented crank system and instrumented pedals.

The accuracy of commercial instrumented crank systems for symmetry assessment in cycling has not been fully explored. Therefore, the authors' aims were to compare peak crank torque between a commercial instrumented crank system and instrumented pedals and to assess the effect of power output on bilateral asymmetries during cycling. Ten competitive cyclists performed an incremental cycling test to exhaustion. Forces and pedal angles were recorded using right and left instrumented pedals synchronized with crank-torque measurements using an instrumented crank system. Differences in right (dominant) and left (nondominant) peak torque and asymmetry index were assessed using effect sizes. In the 100- to 250-W power-output range, the instrumented pedal system recorded larger peak torque (dominant 55-122%, nondominant 23-99%) than the instrumented crank system. There was an increase in differences between dominant and nondominant crank torque as power output increased using the instrumented crank system (7% to 33%) and the instrumented pedals (9% to 66%). Lower-limb asymmetries in peak torque increased at higher power-output levels in favor of the dominant leg. Limitations in design of the instrumented crank system may preclude the use of this system to assess peak crank-torque symmetry.

Noncircular chainrings and pedal to crank interface in cycling: a literature review / Sistemas de pedivela não-circulares e interfaces pedal-pedivela no ciclismo: uma revisão da literatura

Noncircular chainrings and novel pedal to crank interfaces have been designed to optimize variables related to cycling performance (e.g. peak crank torque and efficiency), with conflicting results in terms of performance. Therefore, the aim of the present article was to review the theoretical background of noncircular chainrings and novel pedal to crank interfaces and their effects on biomechanical, physiological and performance variables. Reducing internal work, crank peak torque, and time spent at the top and bottom dead centres (12 o'clock and 6 o'clock positions, respectively) were among the various targets of noncircular chainrings and novel pedal to crank interface design. Changes in joint kinematics without effects on muscle activation were observed when cyclists were assessed using noncircular chainrings and novel pedal to crank interfaces. Conflicting results for economy/efficiency explain the unclear effects of noncircular chainrings on cycling performance and the positive effects of some novel pedal to crank interfaces on cycling economy/efficiency.

Sistemas de coroas não circulares e novas interfaces entre o pedal e o pedivela vem sendo propostas com o objetivo de otimizar variaveis relacionadas com o desempenho no ciclismo (e.g. pico de torque e eficiência) com resultados conflitantes acerca do desempenho. Nesta perspectiva, o objetivo desta revisão foi abordar aspectos teóricos do uso de sistemas de pedivela não circulares e novas interfaces entre o pedal e o pedivela e seus efeitos em variáveis biomecânicas, fisiológicas e do desempenho. A redução do trabalho interno, pico de torque no pedivela e tempo decorrido nos pontos mortos (posições de 12 horas e 6 horas) estiveram entre as variáveis utilizadas para otimizar o desenho de sistemas de pedivela não circulares e novas interfaces entre o pedal e o pedivela. Alterações na cinemática foram observadas sem mudanças na ativação dos músculos dos membros inferiores de ciclistas utlizando sistemas de pesdivela não-circulares e novas interfaces entre o pedal e o pedivela. Resultados conflitantes foram observados na economia/eficiência indicando beneficios pouco claros do uso de sistemas de pedivela não circulares e resultados positivos do uso de novas interfaces entre o pedal e o pedivela na economia/eficiência.

Influência das órteses plantares no ciclismo / Effects of foot ortheses on cycling Performance

A pronação excessiva da articulação subtalar é uma disfunção anatômica que provoca um desalinhamento do membro inferior alterando parâmetros biomecânicos (e. g. rotação medial da tíbia e joelho valgo). Esta disfunção contribui para o desenvolvimento de lesões por uso repetitivo no ciclismo. O objetivo desta revisão de literatura foi analisar a função e a prescrição de órteses para correção da pronação da articulação subtalar e antepé de ciclistas. Quarenta e nove textos, entre artigos científicos e livros, publicados de 1985 a 2011 foram analisados. Foi observado que não há estudos científicos suficientes para demonstrar a efetividade da prescrição do uso de órteses como medida preventiva de lesões por uso repetitivo decorrente da pronação excessiva da articulação subtalar em ciclistas.

The overpronation of subtalar joint is an anatomical dysfunction that results in misalignment of the lower limb by changing biomechanical parameters (e. g. tibial internal rotation, knee valgus). The misalignment contributes to the development of overuse injuries in cycling. The purpose of this reviewwas to evaluate the role and prescription of orthotics to correct overpronation of the subtalar joint and forefoot in cyclists. Forty-nine texts, including scientific articles and books, published from 1985 to 2011 were used. It was observed that there are not enough scientific studies to support the existing prescription of orthotics for injury prevention resulting from overpronation of the subtalar joint in cyclists.

Revisão etiológica da lombalgia em ciclistas / Etiologic review of low back pain in cyclists / Revisión etiológica de la lumbalgia en ciclistas

A dor lombar é uma disfunção comum entre ciclistas e há tempos sua ocorrência tem sido relacionada ao ajuste dos componentes da bicicleta e sua relação com as características anatômicas do ciclista. O objetivo do presente estudo foi revisar os fatores etiológicos da lombalgia em ciclistas considerando artigos das bases de dados SciELO, PubMed e Scopus, publicados de 1965 a 2011, complementados, quando pertinente, por referências de livros citados por estes artigos. Os resultados indicam que flexão de tronco excessiva, discrepância de comprimento dos membros inferiores, quadro e/ou demais componentes da bicicleta de dimensão inapropriada, falta de ajuste da bicicleta ou ajuste inadequado, fraqueza da musculatura lombo-pélvica, déficit de flexibilidade e desvios posturais pode comprometer o desempenho e o conforto do ciclista sobre a bicicleta, principalmente em percursos de longa distância, podendo levar à lombalgia. Desta forma, o ciclista com lombalgia deve ser avaliado quanto às diferentes variáveis apontadas na literatura de modo a identificar os fatores etiológicos desencadeadores da disfunção lombar para proceder as correções necessárias.

Low back pain is a common disorder in cyclists and it's occurrence has long been related mainly to a lack of flexibility. The aim of this study was to review the etiologic factors of low back pain in cyclists cited by articles from SciELO, PubMed and Scopus, published from 1965 to 2011, indicated, when appropriate, by books cited in these articles. The results indicated that excessive trunk flexion, leg length discrepancy, frame size and/or other components of inappropriate length, poor bike fit or improper bike fit, lumbopelvic muscle weakness, poor flexibility and postural deviations may compromise performance and comfort of the cyclist on the bike, especially during long distance riding and may lead to the development of low back pain. Therefore, the cyclist with back pain should be evaluated based on different variables described in literature with the purpose of identifying the etiologic factors may trigger lumbar dysfunction to make the necessary corrections.

El dolor lumbar es un trastorno frecuente en los ciclistas y su presencia hace mucho tiempo es referida principalmente a la falta de flexibilidad. El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar los factores etiológicos de dolor lumbar en ciclistas con base en artículos de SciELO, PubMed y Scopus, publicados desde 1965 a 2011, complementados, cuando necesario, por las referencias citadas en estos artículos. Los resultados indican que la flexión demasiada del tronco, discrepancia en la longitud de las piernas, la dimensión inadecuada del cuadro y los otros componentes de la bicicleta, la falta de ajuste de la bicicleta o ajuste incorrecto, debilidad muscular en el cuadril, déficit de la flexibilidad y desviaciones posturales pueden comprometer el rendimiento y la comodidad del ciclista sobre la bicicleta, especialmente en largas distancias y puede conducir al desarrollo de la dolor lumbar. Así, el corredor con el dolor lumbar debe ser evaluado en respecto a las diferentes variables descritas en la literatura con el fin de identificar los factores etiológicos que provocan la disfunción lumbar para hacer las correcciones necesarias.

Influence of leg preference on bilateral muscle activation during cycling.

The purpose of this study was to investigate asymmetry of muscle activation in participants with different levels of experience and performance with cycling. Two separate experiments were conducted, one with nine cyclists and one with nine non-cyclists. The experiments involved incremental maximal and sub-maximal constant load cycling tests. Bilateral surface electromyography (EMG) and gross and net muscle efficiency were assessed. Analyses of variance in mixed linear models and t-tests were conducted. The cyclists in Experiment 1 presented higher gross efficiency (P < 0.05), whereas net efficiency did not differ between the two experiments (21.3 ± 1.4% and 19.8 ± 1.0% for cyclists and non-cyclists, respectively). The electrical muscle activity increased significantly with exercise intensity regardless of leg preference in both experiments. The coefficient of variation of EMG indicated main effects of leg in both experiments. The non-preferred leg of non-cyclists (Experiment 2) presented statistically higher variability of muscle activity in the gastrocnemius medialis and vastus lateralis. Our findings suggest similar electrical muscle activity between legs in both cyclists and non-cyclists regardless of exercise intensity. However, EMG variability was asymmetric and appears to be strongly influenced by exercise intensity for cyclists and non-cyclists, especially during sub-maximal intensity. Neural factors per se do not seem to fully explain previous reports of pedalling asymmetries.

Effects of saddle height, pedaling cadence, and workload on joint kinetics and kinematics during cycling.

CONTEXT: It is not clear how noncyclists control joint power and kinematics in different mechanical setups (saddle height, workload, and pedaling cadence). Joint mechanical work contribution and kinematics analysis could improve our comprehension of the coordinative pattern of noncyclists and provide evidence for bicycle setup to prevent injury. OBJECTIVE: To compare joint mechanical work distribution and kinematics at different saddle heights, workloads, and pedaling cadences. DESIGN: Quantitative experimental research based on repeated measures. SETTING: Research laboratory. PATIENTS: 9 healthy male participants 22 to 36 years old without competitive cycling experience. INTERVENTION: Cycling on an ergometer in the following setups: 3 saddle heights (reference, 100% of trochanteric height; high, +3 cm; and low, -3 cm), 2 pedaling cadences (40 and 70 rpm), and 3 workloads (0, 5, and 10 N of braking force). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Joint kinematics, joint mechanical work, and mechanical work contribution of the joints. RESULTS: There was an increased contribution of the ankle joint (P=.04) to the total mechanical work with increasing saddle height (from low to high) and pedaling cadence (from 40 to 70 rpm, P<.01). Knee work contribution increased when saddle height was changed from high to low (P<.01). Ankle-, knee-, and hip-joint kinematics were affected by saddle height changes (P<.01). CONCLUSIONS: At the high saddle position it could be inferred that the ankle joint compensated for the reduced knee-joint work contribution, which was probably effective for minimizing soft-tissue damage in the knee joint (eg, anterior cruciate ligament and patellofemoral cartilage). The increase in ankle work contribution and changes in joint kinematics associated with changes in pedaling cadence have been suggested to indicate poor pedaling-movement skill.

Does leg preference affect muscle activation and efficiency?

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of leg preference and cycling experience on unilateral muscle efficiency and muscle activation. To achieve this purpose, two experiments were performed. Experiment 1 involved eight cyclists and experiment 2 included eight non-cyclists. Subjects underwent an incremental maximal test and submaximal trials of one-legged cycling for preferred and non-preferred leg. Oxygen uptake and muscle efficiency were compared between legs. The magnitude of muscle activation (RMS) and the inter-limb excitation were monitored for the vastus lateralis, biceps femoris and gastrocnemius (medial head) muscles during one-legged cycling with preferred and non-preferred leg. Variables of muscle activation, oxygen uptake and muscle efficiency (gross and net) did not differ between legs (P>0.05). The magnitude of muscle activation and its variability were similar between legs while performing the unilateral pedaling. Inter-limb communication did not differ between experiments (P>0.05). Similar activation between legs was consistent with the influence of bilateral practice for attaining similar performance between sides. These results do not support asymmetry in magnitude of muscle activation during pedaling.

Physiological and electromyographic responses during 40-km cycling time trial: relationship to muscle coordination and performance.

The purpose of this study was to compare the oxygen uptake (VO(2)), respiratory exchange ratio (RER), cadence and muscle activity during cycling a 40-km time trial (TT), and to analyse the relationship between muscle activity and power output (PO). Eight triathletes cycled a 40-km TT on their own bicycles, which were mounted on a stationary cycle simulator. The VO(2), RER and muscle activity (electromyography, EMG) from tibialis anterior (TA), gastrocnemius medialis (GA), biceps femoris (BF), rectus femoris (RF) and vastus lateralis (VL) of the lower limb were collected. The PO was recorded from the cycle simulator. The data were collected at the 3rd, 10th, 20th, 30th and 38th km. The root mean square envelope (RMS) of EMG was calculated. The VO(2) and PO presented a significant increase at the 38th km (45.23+/-8.35 ml kg min(-1) and 107+/-7.11% of mean PO of 40-km, respectively) compared to the 3rd km (38.12+/-5.98 ml kg min(-1) and 92+/-8.30% of mean PO of 40-km, respectively). There were no significant changes in cadence and RER throughout the TT. The VL was the only muscle that presented significant increases in the RMS at the 10th km (22.56+/-3.05% max), 20th km (23.64+/-2.52% max), 30th km (25.27+/-3.00% max), and 38th km (26.28+/-3.57%max) when compared to the 3rd km (21.03+/-1.88%max). The RMS of VL and RF presented a strong relationship to PO (r=0.89 and 0.86, respectively, p<0.05). The muscular steady state reported for cycling a 30-min TT seems to occur in the 40-km TT, for almost all assessed muscles, probably in attempt to avoid premature muscle fatigue.