Alginate hydrogel cross-linked by Ca2+ to promote spinal cord neural stem/progenitor cell differentiation and functional recovery after a spinal cord injuryhh.

Alginate capillary hydrogels seeded with differentiated cells can fill the lesion cavity and promote axonal regeneration after grafting into the injured spinal cord. Neural stem/progenitor cells (NSPCs) can potentially repair the spinal cord; however, effects of alginate hydrogels (AHs) on NSPCs remain unknown. In this study, we fabricated AHs cross-linked by Ca2+ and seeded hydrogels with rat embryonic day 14 NSPCs. Immunocytochemistry and electron microscopy show that NSPCs survive, proliferate and differentiate into neurons in vitro within the capillaries. After transplantation into an acute T8 complete spinal cord transection site in adult rats, approximately one-third (38.3%) of grafted cells survive and differentiate into neurons (40.7%), astrocytes (26.6%) and oligodendrocytes (28.4%) at 8 weeks post-grafting. NSPCs promote the growth of host axons within the capillaries in a time-dependent manner. Host axons make synapse-like contacts with NSPC-derived neurons within the hydrogel channels, and graft-derived axons extend into the host white and gray matter making putative synapses. This is paralleled by improved electrophysiological conductivity across the lesion and partial hindlimb locomotor recovery.

Neural Stem Cells: Promoting Axonal Regeneration and Spinal Cord Connectivity.

Spinal cord injury (SCI) leads to irreversible functional impairment caused by neuronal loss and the disruption of neuronal connections across the injury site. While several experimental strategies have been used to minimize tissue damage and to enhance axonal growth and regeneration, the corticospinal projection, which is the most important voluntary motor system in humans, remains largely refractory to regenerative therapeutic interventions. To date, one of the most promising pre-clinical therapeutic strategies has been neural stem cell (NSC) therapy for SCI. Over the last decade we have found that host axons regenerate into spinal NSC grafts placed into sites of SCI. These regenerating axons form synapses with the graft, and the graft in turn extends very large numbers of new axons from the injury site over long distances into the distal spinal cord. Here we discuss the pathophysiology of SCI that makes the spinal cord refractory to spontaneous regeneration, the most recent findings of neural stem cell therapy for SCI, how it has impacted motor systems including the corticospinal tract and the implications for sensory feedback.

Anisotropic Alginate Hydrogels Promote Axonal Growth across Chronic Spinal Cord Transections after Scar Removal.

We have previously reported that cell-seeded alginate hydrogels (AHs) with anisotropic capillaries can restore the continuity of the spinal cord and support axonal regeneration in a rat model of acute partial spinal cord transection. Whether similar effects can be found after transplantation into sites of complete chronic spinal cord transections without additional growth-promoting stimuli has not been investigated. We therefore implanted AHs into the cavity of a chronic thoracic transection following scar resection (SR) 4 weeks postinjury and examined electrophysiological and functional recovery as well as regeneration of descending and ascending projections within and beyond the AH scaffold up to 3 months after engraftment. Our results indicate that both electrophysiological conductivity and locomotor function are significantly improved after AH engraftment. SR transiently impairs locomotor function immediately after surgery but does not affect long-term outcomes. Histological analysis shows numerous host cells migrating into the scaffold channels and a reduction of fibroglial scaring around the lesion by AH grafts. In contrast to corticospinal axons, raphaespinal and propriospinal descending axons and ascending sensory axons regenerate throughout the scaffolds and extend into the distal host parenchyma. These results further support the pro-regenerative properties of AHs and their therapeutic potential for chronic SCI in combination with other strategies to improve functional outcomes after spinal cord injury.

Peptides and Astroglia Improve the Regenerative Capacity of Alginate Gels in the Injured Spinal Cord.

IMPACT STATEMENT: Axonal bridging across a lesion in the injured spinal cord requires a growth substrate and guidance cues. Using alginate hydrogels with capillary channels we show that poly-l-ornithine and laminin can be stably bound and improve cell adhesion and neurite growth in vitro, and axon growth in vivo by enhancing host cell infiltration in the injured spinal cord. Filling of coated hydrogels with postnatal astrocytes further increases short-distance axon growth and results in a continuous astroglial substrate across the host/graft interface. Thus, positively charged bioactive molecules can be stably bound to anisotropic capillary alginate hydrogels and early astrocytes further promote tissue integration.

Sensorimotor Activity Partially Ameliorates Pain and Reduces Nociceptive Fiber Density in the Chronically Injured Spinal Cord.

A large proportion of patients suffering from spinal cord injury (SCI) develop chronic central neuropathic pain. Previously, we and others have shown that sensorimotor training early after SCI can prevent the development of mechanical allodynia. To determine whether training initiated in the subchronic/chronic phase remains effective, correlates of below-level neuropathic pain were analyzed in the hindpaws 5-10 weeks after a moderate T11 contusion SCI (50 kDyn) in adult female C57BL/6 mice. In a comparison of SCI and sham mice 5 weeks post-injury, about 80% of injured animals developed mechanical hypersensitivity to light mechanical stimuli, whereas testing of noxious stimuli revealed hypo-responsiveness. Thermal sensitivity testing showed a decreased response latency after injury. Without intervention, mechanical and thermal hyper-responsiveness were evident until the end of the experiment (10 weeks). In contrast, treadmill training (2 × 15 min/day; 5 × /week) initiated 6 weeks post-injury resulted in partial amelioration of pain behavior and this effect remained stable. Analysis of calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP)-labeled fibers in lamina III-IV of the lumbar dorsal horn revealed an increase in labeling density after SCI. This was not due to changes in the number or size distribution of CGRP-labeled lumbar dorsal root ganglion neurons. Treadmill training reduced the CGRP-labeling density in the spinal cord of injured mice, whereas the density of non-peptidergic isolectin-B4 (IB4)+ fibers showed no changes in lamina IIi and a slight reduction of sparse IB4 labeling in laminae III-IV. Thus, sensorimotor activity initiated in the subchronic/chronic phase of SCI remains effective in ameliorating pain behavior and influencing structural changes of the nociceptive system.

Systemic epothilone D improves hindlimb function after spinal cord contusion injury in rats.

Following a spinal cord injury (SCI) a growth aversive environment forms, consisting of a fibroglial scar and inhibitory factors, further restricting the already low intrinsic growth potential of injured adult central nervous system (CNS) neurons. Previous studies have shown that local administration of the microtubule-stabilizing drug paclitaxel or epothilone B (Epo B) reduce fibrotic scar formation and axonal dieback as well as induce axonal growth/sprouting after SCI. Likewise, systemic administration of Epo B promoted functional recovery. In this study, we investigated the effects of epothilone D (Epo D), an analog of Epo B with a possible greater therapeutic index, on fibrotic scarring, axonal sprouting and functional recovery after SCI. Delayed systemic administration of Epo D after a moderate contusion injury (150 kDyn) in female Fischer 344 rats resulted in a reduced number of footfalls when crossing a horizontal ladder at 4 and 8 weeks post-injury. Hindlimb motor function assessed with the BBB open field locomotor rating scale and Catwalk gait analysis were not significantly altered. Moreover, formation of laminin positive fibrotic scar tissue and 5-HT positive serotonergic fiber length caudal to the lesion site were not altered after treatment with Epo D. These findings recapitulate a functional benefit after systemic administration of a microtubule-stabilizing drug in rat contusion SCI.

Depolarization and electrical stimulation enhance in vitro and in vivo sensory axon growth after spinal cord injury.

Activity dependent plasticity is a key mechanism for the central nervous system (CNS) to adapt to its environment. Whether neuronal activity also influences axonal regeneration in the injured CNS, and whether electrical stimulation (ES) can activate regenerative programs in the injured CNS remains incompletely understood. Using KCl-induced depolarization, in vivo ES followed by ex-vivo neurite growth assays and ES after spinal cord lesions and cell grafting, we aimed to identify parameters important for ES-enhanced neurite growth and axonal regeneration. Using cultures of sensory neurons, neurite growth was analyzed after KCl-induced depolarization for 1-72h. Increased neurite growth was detected after short-term stimulation and after longer stimulation if a sufficient delay between stimulation and growth measurements was provided. After in vivo ES (20Hz, 2× motor threshold, 0.2ms, 1h) of the intact sciatic nerve in adult Fischer344 rats, sensory neurons showed a 2-fold increase in in vitro neurite length one week later compared to sham animals, an effect not observed one day after ES. Longer ES (7h) and repeated ES (7days, 1h each) also increased growth by 56-67% one week later, but provided no additional benefit. In vivo growth of dorsal column sensory axons into a graft of bone marrow stromal cells 4weeks after a cervical spinal cord lesion was also enhanced with a single post-injury 1h ES of the intact sciatic nerve and was also observed after repeated ES without inducing pain-like behavior. While ES did not result in sensory functional recovery, our data indicate that ES has time-dependent influences on the regenerative capacity of sensory neurons and might further enhance axonal regeneration in combinatorial approaches after SCI.

Cortical electrical stimulation in female rats with a cervical spinal cord injury to promote axonal outgrowth.

Electrical stimulation (ES) to promote corticospinal tract (CST) repair after spinal cord injury (SCI) is underinvestigated. This study is the first to detail intracortical ES of the injured CST. We hypothesize that cortical ES will promote CST collateralization and regeneration, prevent dieback, and improve recovery in an SCI rat model. The CST was transected at the the fourth cervical level in adult female Lewis rats trained in a stairwell grasping task. Animal groups included (a) ES333 (n = 14; 333 Hz, biphasic pulse for 0.2-ms duration every 500 ms, 30 pulses per train); (b) ES20 (n = 14; 20 Hz, biphasic pulse for 0.2-ms duration every 1 s, 60 pulses per train); (c) SCI only (n = 10); and (d) sham (n = 10). ES of the injured forelimb's motor cortex was performed for 30 min immediately prior to SCI. Comparisons between histological data were performed with a 1-way ANOVA or Kruskal-Wallis test, and grasping scores were compared using repeated-measures 2-way ANOVA. Significantly more axonal collateralization was found in ES333 animals compared with controls (p < .01). Axonal dieback analysis revealed ES20 rats to have consistently more dieback than the other groups at all points measured (p < .05). No difference in axonal regeneration was found between groups, nor was there any difference in functional recovery. Cortical ES of the injured CST results in increased collateral sprouting and influences neuroplasticity depending on the ES parameters used. Further investigation regarding optimal parameters and its functional effects is required.

Enhancing excitatory activity of somatosensory cortex alleviates neuropathic pain through regulating homeostatic plasticity.

Central sensitization and network hyperexcitability of the nociceptive system is a basic mechanism of neuropathic pain. We hypothesize that development of cortical hyperexcitability underlying neuropathic pain may involve homeostatic plasticity in response to lesion-induced somatosensory deprivation and activity loss, and can be controlled by enhancing cortical activity. In a mouse model of neuropathic pain, in vivo two-photon imaging and patch clamp recording showed initial loss and subsequent recovery and enhancement of spontaneous firings of somatosensory cortical pyramidal neurons. Unilateral optogenetic stimulation of cortical pyramidal neurons both prevented and reduced pain-like behavior as detected by bilateral mechanical hypersensitivity of hindlimbs, but corpus callosotomy eliminated the analgesic effect that was ipsilateral, but not contralateral, to optogenetic stimulation, suggesting involvement of inter-hemispheric excitatory drive in this effect. Enhancing activity by focally blocking cortical GABAergic inhibition had a similar relieving effect on the pain-like behavior. Patch clamp recordings from layer V pyramidal neurons showed that optogenetic stimulation normalized cortical hyperexcitability through changing neuronal membrane properties and reducing frequency of excitatory postsynaptic events. We conclude that development of neuropathic pain involves abnormal homeostatic activity regulation of somatosensory cortex, and that enhancing cortical excitatory activity may be a novel strategy for preventing and controlling neuropathic pain.

Regulated viral BDNF delivery in combination with Schwann cells promotes axonal regeneration through capillary alginate hydrogels after spinal cord injury.

Grafting of cell-seeded alginate capillary hydrogels into a spinal cord lesion site provides an axonal bridge while physically directing regenerating axonal growth in a linear pattern. However, without an additional growth stimulus, bridging axons fail to extend into the distal host spinal cord. Here we examined whether a combinatory strategy would support regeneration of descending axons across a cervical (C5) lateral hemisection lesion in the rat spinal cord. Following spinal cord transections, Schwann cell (SC)-seeded alginate hydrogels were grafted to the lesion site and AAV5 expressing brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) under control of a tetracycline-regulated promoter was injected caudally. In addition, we examined whether SC injection into the caudal spinal parenchyma would further enhance regeneration of descending axons to re-enter the host spinal cord. Our data show that both serotonergic and descending axons traced by biotinylated dextran amine (BDA) extend throughout the scaffolds. The number of regenerating axons is significantly increased when caudal BDNF expression is activated and transient BDNF delivery is able to sustain axons after gene expression is switched off. Descending axons are confined to the caudal graft/host interface even with continuous BDNF expression for 8weeks. Only with a caudal injection of SCs, a pathway facilitating axonal regeneration through the host/graft interface is generated allowing axons to successfully re-enter the caudal spinal cord. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Recovery from spinal cord injury is poor due to the limited regeneration observed in the adult mammalian central nervous system. Biomaterials, cell transplantation and growth factors that can guide axons across a lesion site, provide a cellular substrate, stimulate axon growth and have shown some promise in increasing the growth distance of regenerating axons. In the present study, we combined an alginate biomaterial with linear channels with transplantation of Schwann cells within and beyond the lesion site and injection of a regulatable vector for the transient expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Our data show that only with the full combination axons extend across the lesion site and that expression of BDNF beyond 4weeks does not further increase the number of regenerating axons.

Human ESC-Derived Interneurons Improve Major Consequences of Spinal Cord Injury.

Beyond impaired motor and sensory function, neuropathic pain and loss of bladder control caused by spinal cord injuries (SCIs) can severely affect quality of life. In this issue of Cell Stem Cell, Fandel et al. (2016) show that transplanted human ESC-derived cells biased to produce inhibitory interneurons significantly improve pain and bladder function in rodent SCI models.

A Systems-Level Analysis of the Peripheral Nerve Intrinsic Axonal Growth Program.

The regenerative capacity of the injured CNS in adult mammals is severely limited, yet axons in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) regrow, albeit to a limited extent, after injury. We reasoned that coordinate regulation of gene expression in injured neurons involving multiple pathways was central to PNS regenerative capacity. To provide a framework for revealing pathways involved in PNS axon regrowth after injury, we applied a comprehensive systems biology approach, starting with gene expression profiling of dorsal root ganglia (DRGs) combined with multi-level bioinformatic analyses and experimental validation of network predictions. We used this rubric to identify a drug that accelerates DRG neurite outgrowth in vitro and optic nerve outgrowth in vivo by inducing elements of the identified network. The work provides a functional genomics foundation for understanding neural repair and proof of the power of such approaches in tackling complex problems in nervous system biology.

Limited Functional Effects of Subacute Syngeneic Bone Marrow Stromal Cell Transplantation After Rat Spinal Cord Contusion Injury.

Cell transplantation might be one means to improve motor, sensory, or autonomic recovery after traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI). Among the different cell types evaluated to date, bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) have received considerable interest due to their potential neuroprotective properties. However, uncertainty exists whether the efficacy of BMSCs after intraspinal transplantation justifies an invasive procedure. In the present study, we analyzed the effect of syngeneic BMSC transplantation following a moderate to severe rat spinal cord injury. Adult Fischer 344 rats underwent a T9 contusion injury (200 kDy) followed by grafting of GFP-expressing BMSCs 3 days postinjury. Animals receiving a contusion injury without cellular grafts or an injury followed by grafts of syngeneic GFP-expressing fibroblasts served as control. Eight weeks posttransplantation, BMSC-grafted animals showed only a minor effect in one measure of sensorimotor recovery, no significant differences in tissue sparing, and no changes in the recovery of bladder function compared to both control groups in urodynamic measurements. Both cell types survived in the lesion site with fibroblasts displaying a larger graft volume. Thus, contrary to some reports using allogeneic or xenogeneic transplants, subacute intraparenchymal grafting of syngeneic BMSCs has only a minor effect on functional recovery.

Early-onset treadmill training reduces mechanical allodynia and modulates calcitonin gene-related peptide fiber density in lamina III/IV in a mouse model of spinal cord contusion injury.

Below-level central neuropathic pain (CNP) affects a large proportion of spinal cord injured individuals. To better define the dynamic changes of the spinal cord neural network contributing to the development of CNP after spinal cord injury (SCI), we characterized the morphological and behavioral correlates of CNP in female C57BL/6 mice after a moderate T11 contusion SCI (50 kdyn) and the influence of moderate physical activity. Compared with sham-operated animals, injured mice developed mechanical allodynia 2 weeks post injury when tested with small-diameter von Frey hair filaments (0.16 g and 0.4 g filament), but presented hyporesponsiveness to noxious mechanical stimuli (1.4 g filament). The mechano-sensory alterations lasted up to 35 days post injury, the longest time point examined. The response latency to heat stimuli already decreased significantly 10 days post injury reaching a plateau 2 weeks later. In contrast, injured mice developed remarkable hyposensitivity to cold stimuli. Animals that underwent moderate treadmill training (2 × 15 minutes; 5 d/wk) showed a significant reduction in the response rate to light mechanical stimuli as early as 6 days after training. Calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) labeling in lamina III-IV of the dorsal horn revealed significant increases in CGRP-labeling density in injured animals compared with sham control animals. Importantly, treadmill training reduced CGRP-labeling density by about 50% (P < 0.01), partially reducing the injury-induced increases. Analysis of IB4-labeled nonpeptidergic sensory fibers revealed no differences between experimental groups. Abnormalities in temperature sensation were not influenced by physical activity. Thus, treadmill training partially resolves signs of below-level CNP after SCI and modulates the density of CGRP-labeled fibers.

Cell-seeded alginate hydrogel scaffolds promote directed linear axonal regeneration in the injured rat spinal cord.

Despite recent progress in enhancing axonal growth in the injured spinal cord, the guidance of regenerating axons across an extended lesion site remains a major challenge. To determine whether regenerating axons can be guided in rostrocaudal direction, we implanted 2mm long alginate-based anisotropic capillary hydrogels seeded with bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) expressing brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) or green fluorescent protein (GFP) as control into a C5 hemisection lesion of the rat spinal cord. Four weeks post-lesion, numerous BMSCs survived inside the scaffold channels, accompanied by macrophages, Schwann cells and blood vessels. Quantification of axons growing into channels demonstrated 3-4 times more axons in hydrogels seeded with BMSCs expressing BDNF (BMSC-BDNF) compared to control cells. The number of anterogradely traced axons extending through the entire length of the scaffold was also significantly higher in scaffolds with BMSC-BDNF. Increasing the channel diameters from 41µm to 64µm did not lead to significant differences in the number of regenerating axons. Lesions filled with BMSC-BDNF without hydrogels exhibited a random axon orientation, whereas axons were oriented parallel to the hydrogel channel walls. Thus, alginate-based scaffolds with an anisotropic capillary structure are able to physically guide regenerating axons. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: After injury, regenerating axons have to extend across the lesion site in the injured spinal cord to reestablish lost neuronal connections. While cell grafting and growth factor delivery can promote growth of injured axons, without proper guidance, axons rarely extend across the lesion site. Here, we show that alginate biomaterials with linear channels that are filled with cells expressing the growth-promoting neurotrophin BDNF promote linear axon extension throughout the channels after transplantation to the injured rat spinal cord. Animals that received the same cells but no alginate guidance structure did not show linear axonal growth and axons did not cross the lesion site. Thus, alginate-based scaffolds with a capillary structure are able to physically guide regenerating axons.

AngleJ: A new tool for the automated measurement of neurite growth orientation in tissue sections.

BACKGROUND: Regeneration of axons is one means to restore function after central nervous system and peripheral nervous system injury. Besides increasing the number of regenerating axons, guidance of axons over long distances into and across a lesion site are important determinants for efficient functional restoration. Quantification of axon growth directions is therefore an important measure for the efficacy of neuroregenerative approaches. While several methods exist to manually or automatically trace neurites in images of neuronal cultures to determine their length, tools to automatically measure the effect of neurite guidance in tissue sections do not exist. NEW METHOD: Because manual measurements of the orientation of regenerating axons are labor-intensive, time-consuming and unreliable, a plugin called AngleJ for the open source software ImageJ was developed that automatically determines axonal orientation in images of immunohistochemically labeled sections of the spinal cord. RESULTS: Given user-defined filters and thresholds, the plugin accurately detects neurites in sections of the intact spinal cord white matter and a spinal cord hemisection lesion model and measures the distribution pattern of axonal angles. COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHODS: Values of automatically measured angles strongly correlate with angles obtained by manual measurements in ImageJ (Pearson correlation 0.88-0.97 for white matter and 0.76-0.94 for axons sprouting into a lesion site). CONCLUSIONS: AngleJ can be used as a fast alternative to manual angle measurement in conjunction with ImageJ and its source code is freely available to the community.

Large animal and primate models of spinal cord injury for the testing of novel therapies.

Large animal and primate models of spinal cord injury (SCI) are being increasingly utilized for the testing of novel therapies. While these represent intermediary animal species between rodents and humans and offer the opportunity to pose unique research questions prior to clinical trials, the role that such large animal and primate models should play in the translational pipeline is unclear. In this initiative we engaged members of the SCI research community in a questionnaire and round-table focus group discussion around the use of such models. Forty-one SCI researchers from academia, industry, and granting agencies were asked to complete a questionnaire about their opinion regarding the use of large animal and primate models in the context of testing novel therapeutics. The questions centered around how large animal and primate models of SCI would be best utilized in the spectrum of preclinical testing, and how much testing in rodent models was warranted before employing these models. Further questions were posed at a focus group meeting attended by the respondents. The group generally felt that large animal and primate models of SCI serve a potentially useful role in the translational pipeline for novel therapies, and that the rational use of these models would depend on the type of therapy and specific research question being addressed. While testing within these models should not be mandatory, the detection of beneficial effects using these models lends additional support for translating a therapy to humans. These models provides an opportunity to evaluate and refine surgical procedures prior to use in humans, and safety and bio-distribution in a spinal cord more similar in size and anatomy to that of humans. Our results reveal that while many feel that these models are valuable in the testing of novel therapies, important questions remain unanswered about how they should be used and how data derived from them should be interpreted.

Axonal amphoterin mRNA is regulated by translational control and enhances axon outgrowth.

High mobility group (HMG) proteins concentrate in the nucleus, interacting with chromatin. Amphoterin is an HMG protein (HMGB1) that has been shown to have extranuclear functions and can be secreted from some cell types. Exogenous amphoterin can increase neurite growth, suggesting that the secreted protein may have growth promoting activities in neurons. Consistent with this, we show that depletion of amphoterin mRNA from cultured adult rat DRG neurons attenuates neurite outgrowth, pointing to autocrine or paracrine mechanisms for its growth-promoting effects. The mRNA encoding amphoterin localizes to axonal processes and we showed recently that its 3'-UTR is sufficient for axonal localization of heterologous transcripts (Donnelly et al., 2013). Here, we show that amphoterin mRNA is transported constitutively into axons of adult DRG neurons. A preconditioning nerve injury increases the levels of amphoterin protein in axons without a corresponding increase in amphoterin mRNA in the axons. A 60 nucleotide region of the amphoterin mRNA 3'-UTR is necessary and sufficient for its localization into axons of cultured sensory neurons. Amphoterin mRNA 3'-UTR is also sufficient for axonal localization in distal axons of DRG neurons in vivo. Overexpression of axonally targeted amphoterin mRNA increases axon outgrowth in cultured sensory neurons, but axon growth is not affected when the overexpressed mRNA is restricted to the cell body.