The LRRK2 inhibitor GSK2578215A induces protective autophagy in SH-SY5Y cells: involvement of Drp-1-mediated mitochondrial fission and mitochondrial-derived ROS signaling.

Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene have been associated with Parkinson's disease, and its inhibition opens potential new therapeutic options. Among the drug inhibitors of both wild-type and mutant LRRK2 forms is the 2-arylmethyloxy-5-subtitutent-N-arylbenzamide GSK257815A. Using the well-established dopaminergic cell culture model SH-SY5Y, we have investigated the effects of GSK2578215A on crucial neurodegenerative features such as mitochondrial dynamics and autophagy. GSK2578215A induces mitochondrial fragmentation of an early step preceding autophagy. This increase in autophagosome results from inhibition of fusion rather than increases in synthesis. The observed effects were shared with LRRK2-IN-1, a well-described, structurally distinct kinase inhibitor compound or when knocking down LRRK2 expression using siRNA. Studies using the drug mitochondrial division inhibitor 1 indicated that translocation of the dynamin-related protein-1 has a relevant role in this process. In addition, autophagic inhibitors revealed the participation of autophagy as a cytoprotective response by removing damaged mitochondria. GSK2578215A induced oxidative stress as evidenced by the accumulation of 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal in SH-SY5Y cells. The mitochondrial-targeted reactive oxygen species scavenger MitoQ positioned these species as second messengers between mitochondrial morphologic alterations and autophagy. Altogether, our results demonstrated the relevance of LRRK2 in mitochondrial-activated pathways mediating in autophagy and cell fate, crucial features in neurodegenerative diseases.

Autophagy and mitochondrial alterations in human retinal pigment epithelial cells induced by ethanol: implications of 4-hydroxy-nonenal.

Retinal pigment epithelium has a crucial role in the physiology and pathophysiology of the retina due to its location and metabolism. Oxidative damage has been demonstrated as a pathogenic mechanism in several retinal diseases, and reactive oxygen species are certainly important by-products of ethanol (EtOH) metabolism. Autophagy has been shown to exert a protective effect in different cellular and animal models. Thus, in our model, EtOH treatment increases autophagy flux, in a concentration-dependent manner. Mitochondrial morphology seems to be clearly altered under EtOH exposure, leading to an apparent increase in mitochondrial fission. An increase in 2',7'-dichlorofluorescein fluorescence and accumulation of lipid peroxidation products, such as 4-hydroxy-nonenal (4-HNE), among others were confirmed. The characterization of these structures confirmed their nature as aggresomes. Hence, autophagy seems to have a cytoprotective role in ARPE-19 cells under EtOH damage, by degrading fragmented mitochondria and 4-HNE aggresomes. Herein, we describe the central implication of autophagy in human retinal pigment epithelial cells upon oxidative stress induced by EtOH, with possible implications for other conditions and diseases.