Using distraction to reduce reported pain, fear, and behavioral distress in children and adolescents: a multisite study.

ISSUES AND PURPOSE: Distraction during painful procedures has been shown to be effective in previous studies, yet this simple intervention is not used routinely. This study examined the effectiveness and feasibility of distraction in reducing behavioral distress, pain, and fear during venipuncture or intravenous insertion. DESIGN AND METHODS: A two-group randomized design with 384 children in 13 children's hospitals. RESULTS: Age was a significant factor in observed behavioral distress, reports of fear, and self-reported pain. The use of a kaleidoscope, however, did not significantly reduce pain or distress during venipuncture or i.v. insertion. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS: Failure of the distraction intervention to reach statistical significance in this study is puzzling, given anecdotal reports of clinical efficacy. Methodological issues may have obscured actual differences between experimental and control groups.

Sonography of the glenoid labrum: a cadaveric study with arthroscopic correlation.

OBJECTIVE: We assessed the usefulness of sonography in evaluating the glenoid labrum in cadaveric specimens using arthroscopy as a standard of reference. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Eighty labral quadrants in 20 cadaveric shoulders were examined by two musculoskeletal radiologists using 5- to 7-MHz linear and curvilinear transducers. Agreement was reached by consensus. After sonography, arthroscopy was performed by an experienced orthopedic surgeon. Each labral quadrant was classified at the time of sonography and arthroscopy as normal, degenerated, or torn. RESULTS: Concordance between sonography and arthroscopy was 86% (69/80 quadrants). In differentiating abnormal labrum (tear or degeneration) from normal labrum using sonography, sensitivity was 63%, specificity was 98%, positive predictive value was 94%, negative predictive value was 86%, and accuracy was 88%. In differentiating labral tears from other labral conditions (degeneration or normality), sensitivity was 67%, specificity was 99%, positive predictive value was 67%, negative predictive value was 99%, and accuracy was 98%. CONCLUSION: Sonography has a promising role in the evaluation of the glenoid labrum, particularly in excluding labral tears when the labra appear normal on sonography. Further studies are required using normal and symptomatic patients to determine the usefulness of sonography in the diagnosis of labral abnormalities.

Relationship between mammographic screening intervals and size and histology of ductal carcinoma in situ.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to determine how the length of time between mammographic screenings is related to the size, grade, and histology of mammographically detected ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS). MATERIALS AND METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed 166 consecutive mammograms of women evaluated for DCIS with (n = 24) and without (n = 142) microinvasion. The size of the DCIS was determined by the maximum diameter as measured on the mammogram. After pathologic analysis, DCIS was classified by histologic architecture, nuclear grade, presence of microinvasion, and presence of multifocality. Four screening intervals were defined: annual (6-17 months), biennial (18-29 months), triennial (> or = 30 months), and first time. Patients were grouped according to screening intervals. The average age of all groups was 55 years. RESULTS: The annual group (mean size of DCIS, 1.69 cm) had significantly smaller DCIS than did the biennial (mean size, 2.27 cm), triennial (mean size, 3.49 cm), or first time groups (mean size, 3.29 cm) (p = .003). Comedo histology was more frequently observed in patients screened biennially (73.7%) than in those screened annually (46.8%) (p = .05). High-grade nuclear histology was more commonly seen in the biennial (76.3%) than in the annual (48.1%) screening group (p = .008). We found no significant correlation between screening interval and the incidence of microinvasion and multifocality. CONCLUSION: Small, low-grade noncomedo DCIS was more common in the annual mammographic screening group than in the biennial screening group. A direct relationship was found between DCIS size and length of screening interval: DCIS detected at annual screening was smaller than that found at biennial screening, which in turn was smaller than DCIS revealed at triennial screening. This study provides inferential support for annual screening mammography for DCIS detection and management.

Providing health care for children in foster care: a role for advanced practice nurses.

Children placed in foster care remain one of the country's most medically underserved groups. At the same time, health care problems are increasingly common in this population. The child welfare system is in a crisis as it struggles to place greater numbers of children with increasingly complex health care needs into limited foster care settings. Six solutions have been proposed in the literature, and are as follows: (a) designation of a particular agency or individual to serve as health care coordinator; (b) timely assessment and care provision; (c) use of a medical passport; (d) increased training for foster care providers and case workers; (e) advocating for improved legislation and standards; and (f) development of community-based clinics. Advanced practice pediatric nurses have the capability to play a key role in providing and coordinating care for children in foster care.

Nonpharmacological interventions to use with children in pain.

Children's pain is often poorly managed, and interventions other than medications are rarely used. Yet many nonpharmacological interventions are helpful in managing children's pain. These techniques are reviewed, and the physiological mechanisms underlying them are briefly addressed. A discussion of the three major classifications (sensory, cognitive, and cognitive-behavioral) of interventions follows. Factors that influence the use of nonpharmacological techniques, including type of pain and developmental level, are discussed.

Neonatal pain: from concept to research questions and a role for the advanced practice nurse.

The assessment and treatment of neonatal pain remain inconsistent in spite of scientific evidence and agreement among practitioners that neonates do experience pain. In fact, pain forms the basis for many subsequent maturational events and may mediate future responses to pain. The article outlines the concept of pain in the neonate, provides suggestions for future research, and discusses the instrumental role of the advanced practice nurse in the recognition and treatment of neonatal pain.

Use of distraction with children during an acute pain experience.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of a distraction technique in reducing a child's perceived pain and behavioral distress during an acute pain experience. A convenience sample of 100 children, ages 3 years 6 months through 12 years 11 months, scheduled for routine blood draws, was recruited and randomly assigned to an experimental or control group. During venipuncture, the control subjects received standard preparation, which consisted of being comforted by physical touch and soft voices, while experimental subjects were encouraged to use a kaleidoscope as a distraction technique. Results of the MANCOVA, with age as a covariate, indicated a significant difference between the groups. Univariate post hoc tests confirmed that the experimental group perceived less pain and demonstrated less behavioral distress than the control group.

The relationship between maternal characteristics, maternal vulnerability beliefs, and immunization compliance.

The purpose of this descriptive study was to determine the relationship of demographic variables and mothers' perceived vulnerability to eight communicable diseases with immunization compliance. A random sample consisting of 40 mothers with preschool-age children 4-24 months of age was interviewed by means of the Communicable Disease Perceived Vulnerability Scale and the investigator-developed Demographic Data Collection Instrument. Data were analyzed with descriptive statistics and chi-square (p < or = .05). The average mother in the sample was White, had a 10th- to 12th-grade education, was 24-31 years old, and had a yearly income of $10,000-$45,000. Statistically there were no significant relationships between maternal characteristics or between maternal vulnerability beliefs and immunization compliance. However, it is clinically significant that the overall compliance rate of 70% in this rural area is much higher than the national average of 50%. Findings suggest that using health education materials at the time of newborn discharge, mailing reminder cards, and accessing a statewide computer recall system may increase immunization compliance. In addition, mothers who perceived a vulnerability to the diseases had a 60.6% compliance rate, suggesting that perception of vulnerability may be a useful predictor of immunization compliance.

Effect of orthostatic stress on umbilical Doppler waveforms in normal and hypertensive pregnancies.

OBJECTIVE: Our study examined the effects of orthostatic stress and maternal hemodynamics on umbilical systolic/diastolic ratios in normal and hypertensive pregnancies. STUDY DESIGN: Eighteen normal and 20 hypertensive third-trimester pregnancies were examined in the left lateral recumbent, sitting, and standing positions. Measurements included umbilical systolic/diastolic ratio, maternal blood pressure, maternal cardiac output, and maternal total peripheral resistance. RESULTS: All patients demonstrated a fall in cardiac output and a rise in total peripheral resistance with standing. No change in systolic/diastolic ratio occurred with change to the upright position in patients with normotension. Patients with hypertension exhibited a significant increase in umbilical systolic/diastolic ratio with postural change. The increase was more marked in women who had hypertension with elevated peripheral resistance. CONCLUSION: Patients with hypertension are at increased risk of elevation of systolic/diastolic ratio with postural change; women with high-resistance hypertension may be at highest risk.

The maternal hemodynamic effect of indomethacin in normal pregnancy.

The vasodilation of pregnancy is thought by many to be due to increased endothelial production of prostacyclin, a vasodilatory prostanoid. Indomethacin, a potent inhibitor of prostaglandin synthesis, is known to increase the maternal blood pressure response to angiotensin II infusion. We sought to measure directly the hemodynamic effects of a short course of indomethacin. Twenty-three healthy pregnant women with uncomplicated pregnancies between 26-32 weeks' gestation completed the study. Using Doppler technology, we determined cardiac output, stroke volume, and total peripheral resistance before and after three 25-mg doses of indomethacin. Although blood pressure did not change, peripheral resistance rose and stroke volume fell following indomethacin administration. Our findings support the hypothesis that indomethacin interferes with tonic prostaglandin-induced vasodilation in pregnancy. However, the increase in vascular resistance was very slight, suggesting that other vasodilators are also at work in pregnancy. We recommend that indomethacin be used judiciously in hypertensive pregnant patients until more information concerning possible adverse hemodynamic effects becomes available.

Maternal hemodynamics in pregnancies complicated by hyperthyroidism.

The hemodynamics of six pregnant women with hyperthyroidism were studied before and after therapy. Cardiac output was measured by Doppler technique, and blood pressure by automated cuff. When compared with values in euthyroid pregnant women, blood pressure (83.6 mmHg, P less than .001), heart rate (89.2 beats per minute, P less than .001), cardiac output (11.2 L/minute, P less than .001), and stroke volume (123 mL, P less than .001) were significantly elevated. Total peripheral resistance was significantly reduced (609 dyne.second.cm-5, P less than .001). Despite normalization of thyroid indices after therapy, cardiac output remained markedly elevated (9.7 L/minute, P less than .001) and vascular resistance remained reduced (708 dyne.second.cm-5, P = .01). Although the hemodynamics of pregnant thyrotoxic women normalize with therapy, they remain significantly hyperdynamic.

Isolation and structural identification of 9hydroxy-9desmethyl-cyclosporine.

A metabolite of cyclosporine has been isolated and its structure identified through use of HPLC and tandem mass spectroscopy. Fast atom bombardment mass spectrometry of an HPLC fraction co-eluting with 1 eta hydroxy-cyclosporine (M17) indicated that the mass of this metabolite was 2 Da greater than that of cyclosporine. Further isolation by HPLC yielded a pure fraction, which we analyzed with tandem mass spectrometry. Linear acyl fragment ions originating from the metabolite under collision-induced dissociation were consistent with the difference in mass being associated with amino acid 9 in the cyclosporine backbone. We propose a nomenclature system for future discussion of cyclosporine metabolites.

Measurement of cardiac output in pregnancy by Doppler technique.

Doppler technique of measuring cardiac output was evaluated during pregnancy. In a study of accuracy Doppler technique correlated well with thermodilution, (r = 0.95, y = 1.05x - 0.35). In a study of interoperator variability, the technique was found to be reproducible, (r = 0.92, y = 0.91x + 0.74).

Contact pressures from an instrumented hip endoprosthesis.

A pressure-measuring Moore-type endoprosthesis was implanted in a seventy-three-year-old patient who had sustained a displaced fracture of the femoral neck. The measurement and telemetry of contact pressures in the hip began in the operating room, and data were acquired periodically for more than thirty-six months. Unexpectedly high localized contact pressures between the acetabular cartilage and the prosthesis were recorded. Early in the period of recovery, activities such as using a bedpan or performing isometric exercise produced pressures that were close to those recorded during normal walking. The highest pressure, eighteen megapascals, was recorded one year postoperatively, while the patient was rising from a chair. High pressures occurred in the superior and posterior aspects of the acetabulum.

Antihypertensive therapy in pregnancy directed by noninvasive hemodynamic monitoring.

Invasive and noninvasive investigations suggest that the hemodynamics of pregnant hypertensive patients are heterogeneous. Nineteen pregnant patients were evaluated before changes in antihypertensive therapy. Cardiac output was measured by Doppler technique. Blood pressure was measured by automated cuff. Systemic vascular resistance was calculated. Two distinct groups were identified on the basis of differences in cardiac output (p less than 0.0001) and systemic vascular resistance (p less than 0.0001). Those with high resistances were treated with hydralazine. A modest antihypertensive effect was achieved (-6.9 mmHg, p = 0.01), but systemic vascular resistance was dramatically reduced, (-534 dyne.sec.cm-5, p less than 0.0001) and was associated with a compensatory increase in cardiac output (2.0 liters/min, p less than 0.0001). Those with a high cardiac output were treated with atenolol. An antihypertensive effect was achieved, (-17.0 mm Hg, p = 0.008), which was associated with a reduction in cardiac output (-2.8 liters/min, p less than 0.0001).

Measurement of cardiac output in pregnancy by thermodilution and impedance techniques.

To assess the value of impedance cardiography in pregnancy, simultaneous measurements of cardiac output were made with impedance and thermodilution techniques in 10 patients who required pulmonary artery catheterization. The methods correlated poorly (r = 0.17). The discrepancy between methods was particularly pronounced in hypertensive patients. Impedance cardiography does not measure cardiac output accurately in hypertensive pregnant women.

Contact pressures in the human hip joint measured in vivo.

The pressures on human articular cartilage have been measured in vivo. An instrumented femoral head prosthesis that telemeters interarticular pressure at 10 discrete locations 253 times per second was implanted in apposition to natural acetabular cartilage. Data were acquired during surgery, recovery, rehabilitation, and normal activity, for longer than 1 year after surgery. Pressure magnitudes were synchronized with body-segment kinematic data and foot-floor force measurements so as to locate transduced pressure areas on the natural acetabulum and correlate movement kinematics and dynamics with local cartilage pressures. The data reveal very high local (up to 18 MPa) and nonuniform pressures, with abrupt spatial and temporal gradients, that correlate well both in magnitude and distribution with in vitro data and computer simulations of synovial joint mechanics. Peak pressures in vivo are, however, considerably higher than pressures measured in vitro under the putative forces experienced by the joint in life, particularly in normal movements where cocontraction occurs in agonist and antagonist muscles across the hip joint. Thus, extant gait-analysis studies which apply inverse Newtonian calculations to infer joint forces establish the lower limit on such forces, since such analyses include only the net muscular torques about the joint and cannot account for the contribution of the increment in joint force due to muscular cocontraction. Our data also contribute to the understanding of normal synovial joint tribology and the possible role of mechanical factors in the deterioration evident in osteoarthritis. Further, design criteria for both partial and total hip replacement prostheses and specific aspects of rehabilitation protocols following hip surgery (e.g., the extent to which crutches and canes unload the hip joint) warrant reconsideration in light of the extraordinary high pressures measured during the activities of daily living.