Long-term maintenance of efficacy of dapagliflozin in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular disease.

AIM: To evaluate the long-term efficacy, safety and tolerability of dapagliflozin versus placebo added to usual care in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and cardiovascular disease (CVD). METHODS: Data were pooled from two phase III studies (NCT01031680 and NCT01042977) in high-risk patients (N = 1887) with T2DM and CVD treated with dapagliflozin (10 mg/day) or placebo. Patients completing the double-blind treatment studies (24 weeks) entered one or two sequential double-blind, long-term (LT) extensions of 28 (LT1; n = 1649) and 52 (LT2; n = 568) weeks. RESULTS: Baseline and CVD characteristics were similar in the two groups. Patients entering LT1 and LT2 on dapagliflozin maintained a greater mean reduction in glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) versus placebo at 52 weeks [LT1, -0.58% (95% confidence interval -0.68, -0.49)] and 104 weeks [LT2, -0.35% (95% confidence interval -0.59, -0.12)]. Mean body weight and systolic blood pressure (SBP) reductions versus placebo were maintained in patients entering LT1 (52 weeks; -2.23 kg and -3.25 mmHg, respectively) and LT2 (104 weeks; -3.16 kg and -2.03 mmHg, respectively). Patients on dapagliflozin had a better three-item composite endpoint of clinical benefit (glycaemia, weight and SBP) compared with placebo at week 24 (LT1, 10.1% vs. 1.1%) and week 104 (LT2, 6.7% vs. 1.4%). Genital and urinary tract infections were more frequent with dapagliflozin than with placebo. Events of hypoglycaemia, renal impairment/failure and volume depletion were similar between groups. CONCLUSIONS: The long-term efficacy of dapagliflozin to maintain reductions in HbA1c, SBP and body weight over 2 years, together with its tolerability profile, make dapagliflozin an appropriate option in high-risk patients with T2DM and CVD.

In vivo effects of dietary quercetin and quercetin-rich red onion extract on skeletal muscle mitochondria, metabolism, and insulin sensitivity.

Red onions and low doses of the flavonoid, quercetin, increase insulin sensitivity and improve glucose tolerance. We hypothesized that dietary supplementation with red onion extract (RO) would attenuate high fat diet (HFD)-induced obesity and insulin resistance similar to quercetin supplementation by increasing energy expenditure through a mechanism involving skeletal muscle mitochondrial adaptations. To test this hypothesis, C57BL/6J mice were randomized into four groups and fed either a low fat diet (LF), HFD (HF), HFD + quercetin (HF + Q), or HFD + RO (HF + RO) for 9 weeks. Food consumption and body weight and composition were measured weekly. Insulin sensitivity was assessed by insulin and glucose tolerance tests. Energy expenditure and physical activity were measured by indirect calorimetry. Skeletal muscle incomplete beta oxidation, mitochondrial number, and mtDNA-encoded gene expression were measured. Quercetin and RO supplementation decreased HFD-induced fat mass accumulation and insulin resistance (measured by insulin tolerance test) and increased energy expenditure; however, only HF + Q showed an increase in physical activity levels. Although quercetin and RO similarly increased skeletal muscle mitochondrial number and decreased incomplete beta oxidation, establishing mitochondrial function similar to that seen in LF, only HF + Q exhibited consistently lower mRNA levels of mtDNA-encoded genes necessary for complexes IV and V compared to LF. Quercetin- and RO-induced improvements in adiposity, insulin resistance, and energy expenditure occur through differential mechanisms, with quercetin-but not RO-induced energy expenditure being related to increases in physical activity. While both treatments improved skeletal muscle mitochondrial number and function, mtDNA-encoded transcript levels suggest that the antiobesogenic, insulin-sensitizing effects of purified quercetin aglycone, and RO may occur through differential mechanisms.

Artemisia dracunculus L. extract ameliorates insulin sensitivity by attenuating inflammatory signalling in human skeletal muscle culture.

AIMS: Bioactives of Artemisia dracunculus L. (termed PMI 5011) have been shown to improve insulin action by increasing insulin signalling in skeletal muscle. However, it was not known if PMI 5011's effects are retained during an inflammatory condition. We examined the attenuation of insulin action and whether PMI 5011 enhances insulin signalling in the inflammatory environment with elevated cytokines. METHODS: Muscle cell cultures derived from lean, overweight and diabetic-obese subjects were used. Expression of pro-inflammatory genes and inflammatory response of human myotubes were evaluated by real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Insulin signalling and activation of inflammatory pathways in human myotubes were evaluated by multiplex protein assays. RESULTS: We found increased gene expression of monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP1) and TNFα (tumour necrosis factor alpha), and basal activity of the NFkB (nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells) pathway in myotubes derived from diabetic-obese subjects as compared with myotubes derived from normal-lean subjects. In line with this, basal Akt phosphorylation (Ser473) was significantly higher, while insulin-stimulated phosphorylation of Akt (Ser473) was lower in myotubes from normal-overweight and diabetic-obese subjects compared with normal-lean subjects. PMI 5011 treatment reduced basal phosphorylation of Akt and enhanced insulin-stimulated phosphorylation of Akt in the presence of cytokines in human myotubes. PMI 5011 treatment led to an inhibition of cytokine-induced activation of inflammatory signalling pathways such as Erk1/2 and IkBα (nuclear factor of kappa light polypeptide gene enhancer in B-cells inhibitor, alpha)-NFkB and moreover, NFkB target gene expression, possibly by preventing further propagation of the inflammatory response within muscle tissue. CONCLUSIONS: PMI 5011 improved insulin sensitivity in diabetic-obese myotubes to the level of normal-lean myotubes despite the presence of pro-inflammatory cytokines.

Efficacy and safety of canagliflozin monotherapy in subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus inadequately controlled with diet and exercise.

AIMS: Canagliflozin is a sodium glucose co-transporter 2 inhibitor in development for type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). The efficacy and safety of canagliflozin were evaluated in subjects with T2DM inadequately controlled with diet and exercise. METHODS: In this 26-week, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial, subjects (N = 584) received canagliflozin 100 or 300 mg or placebo once daily. Primary endpoint was the change from baseline in haemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) at week 26. Secondary endpoints included the proportion of subjects achieving HbA1c < 7.0%; change from baseline in fasting plasma glucose (FPG), 2-h postprandial glucose (PPG) and systolic blood pressure (BP); and percent change in body weight, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) and triglycerides. Adverse events (AEs) were recorded throughout the study. RESULTS: At week 26, HbA1c was significantly reduced from baseline with canagliflozin 100 and 300 mg compared with placebo (-0.77, -1.03 and 0.14%, respectively; p < 0.001 for both). Both canagliflozin doses significantly decreased FPG, 2-h PPG, body weight and systolic BP (p < 0.001 for all), and increased HDL-C compared with placebo (p < 0.01 for both). Overall incidences of AEs were modestly higher with canagliflozin versus placebo; rates of serious AEs and AE-related discontinuations were low and similar across groups. Incidences of genital mycotic infections, urinary tract infections and osmotic diuresis-related AEs were higher with canagliflozin; these led to few discontinuations. The incidence of hypoglycaemia was low across groups. CONCLUSION: Canagliflozin treatment improved glycaemic control, reduced body weight and was generally well tolerated in subjects with T2DM inadequately controlled with diet and exercise.

Template to improve glycemic control without reducing adiposity or dietary fat.

Drugs that improve chronic hyperglycemia independently of insulin signaling or reduction of adiposity or dietary fat intake may be highly desirable. Ad36, a human adenovirus, promotes glucose uptake in vitro independently of adiposity or proximal insulin signaling. We tested the ability of Ad36 to improve glycemic control in vivo and determined if the natural Ad36 infection in humans is associated with better glycemic control. C57BL/6J mice fed a chow diet or made diabetic with a high-fat (HF) diet were mock infected or infected with Ad36 or adenovirus Ad2 as a control for infection. Postinfection (pi), systemic glycemic control, hepatic lipid content, and cell signaling in tissues pertinent to glucose metabolism were determined. Next, sera of 1,507 adults and children were screened for Ad36 antibodies as an indicator of past natural infection. In chow-fed mice, Ad36 significantly improved glycemic control for 12 wk pi. In HF-fed mice, Ad36 improved glycemic control and hepatic steatosis up to 20 wk pi. In adipose tissue (AT), skeletal muscle (SM), and liver, Ad36 upregulated distal insulin signaling without recruiting the proximal insulin signaling. Cell signaling suggested that Ad36 increases AT and SM glucose uptake and reduces hepatic glucose release. In humans, Ad36 infection predicted better glycemic control and lower hepatic lipid content independently of age, sex, or adiposity. We conclude that Ad36 offers a novel tool to understand the pathways to improve hyperglycemia and hepatic steatosis independently of proximal insulin signaling, and despite a HF diet. This metabolic engineering by Ad36 appears relevant to humans for developing more practical and effective antidiabetic approaches.

Intrahepatic and intramyocellular lipids are determinants of insulin resistance in prepubertal children.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: We hypothesised that ectopic fat deposition is present in liver and skeletal muscle before puberty and that both are potentially important factors in the early pathogenesis of insulin resistance. METHODS: Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy was used to evaluate intramyocellular and intrahepatic lipids in 50 male and 42 female multi-ethnic, prepubertal (Tanner < 2) children (8.1 ± 0.8 years; 35.4 ± 10.7 kg; 27.9 ± 8.3% body fat; means ± SD). Intramyocellular lipid was measured in soleus muscle and intrahepatic lipid in the middle right lobe. Abdominal fat was measured by magnetic resonance imaging, body fat by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry, and insulin resistance using homeostatic model assessment. RESULTS: Intrahepatic lipid ranged from 0.11% to 4.6% relative to the liver water signal (mean 0.79 ± 0.79%) whereas intramyocellular lipid ranged from 0.13% to 1.86% relative to the muscle water signal (mean 0.51 ± 0.28%). Intramyocellular and intrahepatic lipids were significantly correlated with total adiposity (r = 0.49 and 0.59), abdominal adiposity (r = 0.44 and 0.54), and each other (r = 0.39, p < 0.05, Spearman). Both intramyocellular and intrahepatic lipid were positively correlated with fasting insulin (r = 0.37 and 0.38 respectively) and insulin resistance (r = 0.37 and 0.37; p < 0.01). After adjustment for race and sex, the relations between ectopic fat and insulin resistance remained, whereas both disappeared when further adjusted for body fat or BMI z scores. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATIONS: These results suggest that typical relations between body composition, ectopic fat and insulin resistance are present in children before puberty. Thus, interventions aimed at reducing adiposity have the potential to decrease ectopic fat accumulation, delay the onset of insulin resistance and decrease the risk for development of type 2 diabetes in children.

Human adenovirus 36 decreases fatty acid oxidation and increases de novo lipogenesis in primary cultured human skeletal muscle cells by promoting Cidec/FSP27 expression.

BACKGROUND: It has been well documented that human adenovirus type 36 (Ad-36) is associated with obesity. However, the underlying molecular mechanism of Ad-36 inducing obesity remains unknown. We sought to investigate the effect of Ad-36 infection on Cidec, AMPK pathway and lipid metabolism in primary cultured human skeletal muscle cells. METHODS: Cidec/fat-specific protein 27 (FSP27), fatty acid oxidation, AMPK signaling and the abundance of proteins involved in lipid synthesis were determined in muscle cells infected with various doses (1.9-7.6 MOI) of Ad-36 and non-lipogenic adenovirus type 2 (Ad-2) as a negative control as well as an uninfected control. Cidec/FSP27 siRNA transfection was performed in Ad-36-infected muscle cells. RESULTS: Our data show that Ad-36 significantly reduced fatty acid oxidation in a dose-dependent manner (all P values are <0.01), but Ad-2 did not affect fatty acid oxidation. Ad-36 substantially increased Cidec/FSP27, ACC, sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1c (SREBP-1c), SREBP-2 and 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase protein abundance, but significantly reduced AMPK activity, mitochondrial mass and uncoupling protein 3 (UCP3) abundance in comparison with control cells (all P values are <0.01). Oil Red O staining revealed that there was substantial fat accumulation in the Ad-36-infected muscle cells. Furthermore, Cidec/FSP27 siRNA transfection significantly reduced FSP27 expression and partially restored AMPK signaling, increased UCP3 and decreased SERBP 1c and perilipin proteins in Ad-36-infected muscle cells. Interestingly, neither Ad-36 nor Ad-2 affected peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ protein expression in muscle cells. CONCLUSION: This study suggests that Ad-36 induced lipid droplets in the cultured skeletal muscle cells and this process may be mediated by promoting Cidec/FSP27 expression.

Efficacy and safety of sitagliptin when added to insulin therapy in patients with type 2 diabetes.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the efficacy and tolerability of sitagliptin when added to insulin therapy alone or in combination with metformin in patients with type 2 diabetes. METHODS: After a 2 week placebo run-in period, eligible patients inadequately controlled on long-acting, intermediate-acting or premixed insulin (HbA1c > or = 7.5% and < or = 11%), were randomised 1:1 to the addition of once-daily sitagliptin 100 mg or matching placebo over a 24-week study period. The study capped the proportion of randomised patients on insulin plus metformin at 75%. Further, the study capped the proportion of randomised patients on premixed insulin at 25%. The metformin dose and the insulin dose were to remain stable throughout the study. The primary endpoint was HbA1c change from baseline at week 24. RESULTS: Mean baseline characteristics were similar between the sitagliptin (n = 322) and placebo (n = 319) groups, including HbA1c (8.7 vs. 8.6%), diabetes duration (13 vs. 12 years), body mass index (31.4 vs. 31.4 kg/m(2)), and total daily insulin dose (51 vs. 52 IU), respectively. At 24 weeks, the addition of sitagliptin significantly (p < 0.001) reduced HbA1c by 0.6% compared with placebo (0.0%). A greater proportion of patients achieved an HbA1c level < 7% while randomised to sitagliptin as compared with placebo (13 vs. 5% respectively; p < 0.001). Similar HbA1c reductions were observed in the patient strata defined by insulin type (long-acting and intermediate-acting insulins or premixed insulins) and by baseline metformin treatment. The addition of sitagliptin significantly (p < 0.001) reduced fasting plasma glucose by 15.0 mg/dl (0.8 mmol/l) and 2-h postmeal glucose by 36.1 mg/dl (2.0 mmol/l) relative to placebo. A higher incidence of adverse experiences was reported with sitagliptin (52%) compared with placebo (43%), due mainly to the increased incidence of hypoglycaemia (sitagliptin, 16% vs. placebo, 8%). The number of hypoglycaemic events meeting the protocol-specified criteria for severity was low with sitagliptin (n = 2) and placebo (n = 1). No significant change from baseline in body weight was observed in either group. CONCLUSION: In this 24-week study, the addition of sitagliptin to ongoing, stable-dose insulin therapy with or without concomitant metformin improved glycaemic control and was generally well tolerated in patients with type 2 diabetes.

Failure of dietary quercetin to alter the temporal progression of insulin resistance among tissues of C57BL/6J mice during the development of diet-induced obesity.

AIMS/HYPOTHESES: High-fat diets produce obesity and glucose intolerance by promoting the development of insulin resistance in peripheral tissues and liver. The present studies sought to identify the initial site(s) where insulin resistance develops using a moderately high-fat diet and to assess whether the bioflavonoid, quercetin, ameliorates progression of this sequence. METHODS: Four cohorts of male C57BL/6J mice were placed on diets formulated to be low-fat (10% of energy from fat), high-fat (45% of energy from fat) or high-fat plus 1.2% quercetin (wt/wt). After 3 and 8 weeks, cohorts were evaluated using euglycaemic-hyperinsulinaemic clamps, metabolomic analysis of fatty acylcarnitines and acute in vitro assessments of insulin signalling among tissues. RESULTS: After 3 and 8 weeks, the high-fat diet produced whole-body insulin resistance without altering insulin-dependent glucose uptake in peripheral tissues. The primary defect was impaired suppression of hepatic glucose production by insulin at both times. Quercetin initially exacerbated the effect of high-fat diet by further increasing hepatic insulin resistance, but by 8 weeks insulin resistance and hepatic responsiveness to insulin were similarly compromised in both high-fat groups. The high-fat diet, irrespective of quercetin, increased short-chain fatty acylcarnitines in liver but not in muscle, while reciprocally reducing hepatic long-chain fatty acylcarnitines and increasing them in muscle. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: Failure of insulin to suppress hepatic glucose output is the initial defect that accounts for the insulin resistance that develops after short-term consumption of a high-fat (45% of energy) diet. Hepatic insulin resistance is associated with accumulation of short- and medium-, but not long-chain fatty acylcarnitines. Dietary quercetin does not ameliorate the progression of this sequence.

Pharmacotherapy for the treatment of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: rationale and specific agents.

Type 2 diabetes, the most common form of diabetes, is characterized by abnormalities in hepatic glucose production, insulin resistance, and a progressive decline in beta-cell function over time. To treat effectively the individual with type 2 diabetes, the provider must have a thorough understanding of the underlying pathophysiology to provide treatment that precisely addresses the metabolic abnormalities. Currently, the provider who cares for subjects with type 2 diabetes can choose an antidiabetic agent from no less than eight pharmacologic classes. These classes include agents that increase insulin secretion, improve insulin action, and delay absorption of carbohydrates. The newer treatments available, specifically incretin therapy, address a previously unmet need in diabetes by modulating glucose supply. The currently available agents can be combined and combination therapy markedly improves glycemic control. This allows the provider to design regimens to specifically address underlying abnormalities. A review of all currently available agents is provided.

Antihyperglycemic activity of Tarralin, an ethanolic extract of Artemisia dracunculus L.

The studies reported here were undertaken to examine the antihyperglycemic activity of an ethanolic extract of Artemisia dracunculus L., called Tarralin in diabetic and non-diabetic animals. In genetically diabetic KK-A(gamma) mice, Tarralin treatment by gavage (500 mg/kg body wt./day for 7 days) lowered elevated blood glucose levels by 24% from 479+/-25 to 352+/-16 mg/dl relative to control animals. In comparison, treatment with the known antidiabetic drugs, troglitazone (30 mg/kg body wt./day) and metformin (300 mg/kg body wt./day), decreased blood glucose concentrations by 28% and 41%, respectively. Blood insulin concentrations were reduced in the KK-A(gamma) mice by 33% with Tarralin, 48% with troglitazone and 52% with metformin. In (STZ)-induced diabetic mice, Tarralin treatment, (500 mg/kg body wt./day for 7 days), also significantly lowered blood glucose concentrations, by 20%, from 429+/-41 to 376+/-58 mg/dl relative to control. As a possible mechanism, Tarralin was shown to significantly decrease phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) mRNA expression by 28% in STZ-induced diabetic rats. In non-diabetic animals, treatment with Tarralin did not significantly alter PEPCK expression, blood glucose or insulin concentrations. The extract was also shown to increase the binding of glucagon-like peptide (GLP-1) to its receptor in vitro. These results indicate that Tarralin has antihyperglycemic activity and a potential role in the management of diabetic states.

Effects of insulin sensitizers on plaque vulnerability associated with elevated lipid content in atheroma in ApoE-knockout mice.

Acute coronary syndromes are generally precipitated by rupture of lipid-laden, relatively acellular, vulnerable atherosclerotic plaques with thin fibrous caps. We investigated whether a high-fat diet alters insulin sensitivity and whether insulin sensitizers (troglitazone and rosiglitazone) alter the composition of otherwise lipidladen atherosclerotic plaques in mice deficient in apolipoprotein E (ApoE). ApoE-knockout mice were fed a high-fat (n=30) or standard chow (n=10) diet for two weeks. Thereafter, those fed the high-fat diet were treated with troglitazone (n=10), rosiglitazone (n=10) or no drug (n=10) for 16 weeks beginning at 8 weeks of age. Carbohydrate metabolism was assessed with intraperitoneal glucose tolerance tests and insulin tolerance tests. Plaque composition was characterised with confocal laser scanning microscopy. The high-fat diet induced insulin resistance in the absence of weight gain. Compared with control animals on the high-fat diet, animals given troglitazone (400 mg/kg/day) or rosiglitazone (4 mg/kg/day) had significantly less area under the curve (AUC) for insulin ( p<0.05) and glucose disposal ( p<0.05). Despite significant increases in insulin sensitivity with drug treatment, no change in HDL-cholesterol and triglyceride levels, nor reduction in atheroma size or lipid content was noted. Thus, improvement in insulin resistance induced by a high-fat diet in this animal model of vasculopathy did not alter plaque composition.

Caloric restriction lowers plasma lipoprotein (a) in male but not female rhesus monkeys.

Many age-associated pathophysiological changes are retarded by caloric restriction (CR). The present study has investigated the effect of CR on plasma lipoprotein (a) [Lp(a)], an independent risk factor for the age-associated process of atherosclerosis. Rhesus monkeys were fed a control diet (n=19 males, 12 females) or subjected to CR (n=20 males, 11 females fed 30% less calories) for >2 years. All female animals were premenopausal. Plasma Lp(a) levels in control animals were almost two fold higher for males than females (47+/-9 vs 25+/-5mg/dl mean+/-SEM, p=0.05). CR resulted in a reduction in circulating Lp(a) in males to levels similar to those measured in calorie-restricted females, (27+/-5 vs 24+/-4 mg/dl mean+/-SEM). For all animals, plasma Lp(a) was correlated with total cholesterol (r=0.27, p=0.03) and LDL cholesterol (r=0.50, p=0.0001) whether unadjusted or after adjustment for treatment, gender or group. These studies introduce a new mechanism whereby CR may have a beneficial effect on risk factors for the development of atherosclerosis in primates.

Determinants of insulin-stimulated glucose disposal in middle-aged, premenopausal women.

Controversy exists regarding the relative importance of adiposity, physical fitness, and physical activity in the regulation of insulin-stimulated glucose disposal. To address this issue, we measured insulin-stimulated glucose disposal [mg. kg fat-free mass (FFM)(-1). min(-1); oxidative and nonoxidative components] in 45 nondiabetic, nonobese, premenopausal women (mean +/- SD; 47 +/- 3 yr) by use of hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp (40 mU. m(-2). min(-1)) and [6,6-2H2]glucose dilution techniques. We also measured body composition, abdominal fat distribution, thigh muscle fat content, maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max), and physical activity energy expenditure ((2)H(2)(18)O kinetics) as possible correlates of glucose disposal. VO2 max was the strongest correlate of glucose disposal (r = 0.63, P < 0.01), whereas whole body and abdominal adiposity showed modest associations (range of r values from -0.32 to -0.46, P < 0.05 to P < 0.01). A similar pattern of correlations was observed for nonoxidative glucose disposal. None of the variables measured correlated with oxidative glucose disposal. The relationship of VO2 max to glucose disposal persisted after statistical control for FFM, percent body fat, and intra-abdominal fat (r = 0.40, P < 0.01). In contrast, correlations of total and regional adiposity measures to insulin sensitivity were no longer significant after statistical adjustment for VO2 max. VO2 max was the only variable to enter stepwise regression models as a significant predictor of total and nonoxidative glucose disposal. Our results highlight the importance of VO2 max as a determinant of glucose disposal and suggest that it may be a stronger determinant of variation in glucose disposal than total and regional adiposity in nonobese, nondiabetic, premenopausal women.

The use of hormone replacement therapy in postmenopausal women with type 2 diabetes.

In healthy postmenopausal women, estrogen or hormone replacement therapy (ERT or HRT) can alleviate menopausal symptoms and prevent osteoporosis and may also protect against cardiovascular disease (CVD). In addition to improving lipid metabolism, there are reports that estrogen also improves parameters regulating carbohydrate metabolism, including insulin resistance, in healthy women. Therefore, it is likely that ERT or HRT would also benefit women with type 2 diabetes, not only in relieving menopausal symptoms but also in improving the metabolic abnormalities associated with diabetes and in preventing cardiovascular disease.

Insulin resistance: cellular and clinical concepts.

Insulin resistance is defined as a clinical state in which a normal or elevated insulin level produces an attenuated biologic response. Specifically, the biologic response most studied is insulin-stimulated glucose disposal, yet the precise cellular mechanism responsible is not yet known. However, the presence of insulin resistance is observed many years before the onset of clinical hyperglycemia and the diagnosis of Type 2 diabetes. Insulin resistance at this stage appears to be significantly associated with a clustering of cardiovascular risk factors predisposing the individual to accelerated cardiovascular disease. An overview of insulin resistance and the associated clinical insulin resistant state will be discussed.

Inhaled human insulin treatment in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus.

BACKGROUND: Despite demonstrated benefits, intensive insulin therapy has not gained widespread clinical acceptance for several reasons: Multiple daily injections are inconvenient, adherence is a concern, and the time-activity profile may not mimic normal insulin secretion. As such, alternate means of administering insulin are being evaluated. OBJECTIVE: To assess the efficacy and safety of pulmonary delivery of insulin in type 2 diabetic patients who require insulin. DESIGN: Randomized, open-label, 3-month study consisting of a screening visit, a 4-week baseline lead-in phase, and a 12-week treatment phase. SETTING: General clinical research center and outpatient research clinics. PATIENTS: 26 patients (16 men, 10 women) with type 2 diabetes (average age, 51.1 years; average duration of diabetes, 11.2 years). INTERVENTION: Patients received inhaled insulin before each meal plus a bedtime injection of ultralente insulin, performed home glucose monitoring, and had weekly adjustment of insulin dose; target level for preprandial plasma glucose was 5.55 to 8.88 mmol/L (100 to 160 mg/dL). MEASUREMENTS: Glycemic control (hemoglobin A(1c) level) obtained at baseline and monthly for 3 months. Pulmonary function tests were done at baseline and at the end of the study. RESULTS: Inhaled insulin treatment for 3 months significantly improved glycemic control compared with baseline: Mean hemoglobin A(1c) levels decreased by 0.0071 +/- 0.0072 (0.71% +/- 0.72%). Patients experienced an average of 0.83 mild to moderate hypoglycemic event per month; no severe events were recorded. Patients showed no significant weight gain or change in pulmonary function compared with baseline. CONCLUSIONS: Pulmonary delivery of insulin in type 2 diabetic patients who require insulin improved glycemic control, was well tolerated, and demonstrated no adverse pulmonary effects. Larger-scale studies are ongoing to provide long-term efficacy and safety data.

Efficacy of inhaled human insulin in type 1 diabetes mellitus: a randomised proof-of-concept study.

BACKGROUND: Effective glycaemic control in type 1 diabetes mellitus usually requires two or more insulin injections daily. Inhaled intrapulmonary delivery of insulin offers a potential new way to deliver meal-related insulin, eliminating the need for preprandial injections. METHODS: 73 patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus were studied in an open-label, proof-of-concept, parallel-group randomised trial. Patients in the experimental group received preprandial inhaled insulin plus a bedtime subcutaneous ultralente insulin injection. Patients in the control group received their usual insulin regimen of two to three injections per day. Participants monitored their blood glucose four times daily, and adjusted insulin doses weekly to achieve preprandial glucose targets of 5.6-8.9 mmol/L. The primary outcome measure was change in glycosylated haemoglobin (HbA1c) after 12 weeks. Secondary outcomes were fasting and postprandial glucose response to a mixed meal; hypoglycaemia frequency and severity; pulmonary function; and patients' satisfaction. FINDINGS: Changes in HbA1c were indistinguishable between groups (difference 0.2% [95% CI -0.2 to 0.5]). Changes in fasting and postprandial glucose concentrations, and occurrence and severity of hypoglycaemia were also similar between groups. Inhaled insulin was well tolerated and had no effect on pulmonary function (ie, spirometry, lung volumes, diffusion capacity, and oxygen saturation). INTERPRETATION: This proof-of-concept study shows that preprandial insulin can be given by inhalation in individuals with insulin-deficient type 1 diabetes as a less invasive alternative to conventional preprandial insulin injections.