RESUMEN
Neurogenic differentiation 1 (NeuroD1) is a class B basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcription factor and regulates differentiation and survival of neuronal and endocrine cells by means of several protein kinases, including extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK). However, the effect of phosphorylation on the functions of NeuroD1 by ERK has sparked controversy based on context-dependent differences across diverse species and cell types. Here, we evidenced that ERK-dependent phosphorylation controlled the stability of NeuroD1 and consequently, regulated proneural activity in neuronal cells. A null mutation at the ERK-dependent phosphorylation site, S274A, increased the half-life of NeuroD1 by blocking its ubiquitin-dependent proteasomal degradation. The S274A mutation did not interfere with either the nuclear translocation of NeuroD1 or its heterodimerization with E47, its ubiquitous partner and class A bHLH transcription factor. However, the S274A mutant increased transactivation of the E-box-mediated gene and neurite outgrowth in F11 neuroblastoma cells, compared to the wild-type NeuroD1. Transcriptome and Gene Ontology enrichment analyses indicated that genes involved in axonogenesis and dendrite development were downregulated in NeuroD1 knockout (KO) mice. Overexpression of the S274A mutant salvaged neurite outgrowth in NeuroD1-deficient mice, whereas neurite outgrowth was minimal with S274D, a phosphomimicking mutant. Our data indicated that a longer protein half-life enhanced the overall activity of NeuroD1 in stimulating downstream genes and neuronal differentiation. We propose that blocking ubiquitin-dependent proteasomal degradation may serve as a strategy to promote neuronal activity by stimulating the expression of neuron-specific genes in differentiating neurons.
RESUMEN
We prepared hierarchical BiOBr, AgBr/BiOBr and BiOBr(x)I(1-x) (x = 0.3, 0.5 and 0.7) microspheres in ethylene glycol by a solvothermal method, then analyzed them by scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction crystallography, Raman, UV-Visible absorption, BET surface area measurement and photoluminescence spectroscopy. In addition, their photocatalytic activities for methyl orange were tested under irradiation by visible light. The BET surface area, adsorption and photocatalytic activity occurred in the order AgBr/BiOBr < BiOBr << BiOBr(x)I(1-x) (x = 0.3, 0.5 and 0.7). The flower-like BiOBr microspheres exhibited a band gap of 2.76 eV, which decreased with increasing I/Br ratio. The *O2- and h+ were found to be major active species for MO degradation. For BiOBr and AgBr/BiOBr microspheres, *OH radical formation was clearly observed, while the role of *OH radical was found to be negligible for BiOBr(x)I(1-x) (x = 0.3, 0.5 and 0.7) microspheres.
RESUMEN
CREB mediates the transcriptional effects of glucose and incretin hormones in insulin-target cells and insulin-producing ß-cells. Although the inhibition of CREB activity is known to decrease the ß-cell mass, it is still unknown what factors inversely alter the CREB signaling pathway in ß-cells. Here, we show that ß-cell dysfunctions occurring in chronic hyperglycemia are not caused by simple inhibition of CREB activity but rather by the persistent activation of CREB due to decreases in protein phophatase PP2A. When freshly isolated rat pancreatic islets were chronically exposed to 25 mM (high) glucose, the PP2A activity was reduced with a concomitant increase in active pCREB. Brief challenges with 15 mM glucose or 30 µM forskolin after 2 hour fasting further increased the level of pCREB and consequently induced the persistent expression of ICER. The excessively produced ICER was sufficient to repress the transcription of NeuroD, insulin, and SUR1 genes. In contrast, when islets were grown in 5 mM (low) glucose, CREB was transiently activated in response to glucose or forskolin stimuli. Thus, ICER expression was transient and insufficient to repress those target genes. Importantly, overexpression of PP2A reversed the adverse effects of chronic hyperglycemia and successfully restored the transient activation of CREB and ICER. Conversely, depletion of PP2A with siRNA was sufficient to disrupt the negative feedback regulation of CREB and induce hyperglycemic phenotypes even under low glucose conditions. Our findings suggest that the failure of the negative feedback regulation of CREB is the primary cause for ß-cell dysfunctions under conditions of pathogenic hyperglycemia, and PP2A can be a novel target for future therapies aiming to protect ß-cells mass in the late transitional phase of non-insulin dependent type 2 diabetes (NIDDM).
