Relative merits of offering a milk replacer, glucose-electrolyte or whey-based diet on the blood composition and health of unweaned calves after transport.

The objective of this randomized controlled trial was to assess the relative merits of offering unweaned calves 3 different types of diets to meet energy and water deficits that can occur during journeys. Six young unweaned male Holstein calves were randomly selected from within 2 body weight ranges (median 48 and 42 kg) from each of 29 loads (total n = 174 calves) transported from an auction market or a collection center to a calf sorting center before transport to a veal unit. The calves were then randomly allocated to one of 3 dietary treatments (n = 58 calves/dietary treatment). They were offered either a milk replacer diet (M), a glucose-electrolyte diet (G) or a whey-based diet with added electrolytes (W). The ability of these diets to provide sufficient nutrient energy to restore vigor, avoid hypoglycaemia and clinical signs of dehydration without increasing the risk of diarrhea was assessed. A clinical assessment of dehydration, health and vigor was made, and the calves were blood sampled before feeding, then 2 h and 4 h after feeding. The plasma glucose concentration was increased 2 h and 4 h after feeding the M and W diets. The increases in plasma glucose concentration were greater 2 and 4 h after (a) feeding the M than after the W diet and (b) feeding the M and W diets than after the G diet. Back-transformed means and 95% Confidence Intervals (CI) for the ratio of the plasma glucose concentration at 4 h compared with 0 h for the milk replacer, glucose-electrolytes and whey-based diets were 1.2 mM CI 1.21, 1.35; 0.95 mM CI 0.92, 0.97; and 1.09 mM CI 1.06, 1.14, respectively. There was no effect of diet on the change in serum total protein concentration between before feeding and 2 and 4 h after feeding. The serum osmolality was lower 2 h after feeding the G diet. The fall in serum osmolality was greater 2 h after feeding the G diet than after feeding the M and W diets. The changes in the serum osmolality between before feeding and 2 h after feeding for the milk replacer, glucose-electrolytes and whey-based diets were -0.68 mosmol CI -3.27, 1.91; -5.23 mosmol CI -7.82, and -2.64; -0.13 mosmol CI -2.77, 2.51, respectively. The diet offered at the sorting center had no effect on subsequent growth on the veal rearing farm between arrival and slaughter (milk replacer 1.22 kg/d, CI 1.17, 1.28; glucose-electrolyte diet 1.23 kg/d. CI 1.18, 1.28; whey-based diet 1.28 kg/d CI 1.23, 1.33). The M diet provided the calves with nutrients and water to replace energy and water deficits that had accumulated before arrival at the sorting center, and these dietary benefits were still apparent 4 h after feeding. The benefits of the W diet were similar to those of the M diet, but the M diet was better able to assist the calves in maintaining their plasma glucose concentration 4 h after feeding than the W diet. The G diet had some short-term benefits in providing energy and assistance to the calves to recover from dehydration, as indicated by a decrease in serum osmolality. However, the G diet was clearly inferior to the M and W diets in providing sufficient energy to assist the calves in recovering from the effects of transport and fasting. During the 4-h after feeding, no adverse effects of offering the calves the M or W diets were observed. The benefits of the W diet in replacing energy and water deficits were similar to those of the M diet, but the M diet was better able to assist the calves in maintaining their blood glucose concentration 4 h after feeding than the W diet.

Relationships between type of hoof lesion and behavioral signs of lameness in Holstein cows housed in Canadian tiestall facilities.

Although foot pain can affect gait, the presence of a hoof lesion may or may not cause the cow to show visible changes in their gait. This can be dependent on the type and severity of the lesion; for example, the presence of a sole ulcer (SU) has been associated with increased gait scores, whereas digital dermatitis (DD) and sole hemorrhage (SH) have not. In tiestall facilities, gait scoring can be difficult to perform. An alternative method, known as stall lameness scoring (SLS), allows observers to assess cattle for lameness while they remain in their stall. Lameness is determined based on behavioral changes in weight bearing and foot positioning, which include: shifting weight, resting a foot, standing on the edge of the stall, and uneven weight bearing when stepping side to side. The aim of this study was to examine relationships between hoof lesions and these behavioral indicators. A total of 557 observations of SLS and corresponding hoof trimming records, collected during routine trimming events on 7 tiestall herds, were obtained. Trimming was performed by 2 trained hoof trimmers with good agreement on lesion identification, based on quizzes taken at the beginning and mid-way through the study. To ensure trimming had no effect on the behavioral indicators observed, SLS was always performed by a trained observer before trimming. Behavioral indicators focused on the hind limbs only; therefore, the analysis was confined to hind limb lesions using logistic regression to detect the presence of hoof lesion based on observations made during SLS. Seventy-five percent of observed cows had no SLS behavioral indicators, whereas, 11, 12, and 1% had 1, 2, and 3 behavioral indicators, respectively. At least one hind limb lesion was noted during trimming in 19% of cows, with the most common lesions being DD (7%), SU (6%), and SH (4%). A cow that was observed resting one foot and bearing weight unevenly when moving side to side had higher odds of having a hind limb hoof lesion than a cow not displaying these behaviors. When looking at specific hoof lesions, a cow observed resting one limb and bearing weight unevenly had higher odds of having a SU compared with those not displaying these behaviors. A cow observed shifting their weight from one foot to another had higher odds of having SH, and a cow observed bearing weight unevenly had higher odds of DD. Behavioral indicators in weight bearing and foot positioning can help identify cows in tiestalls with hind limb hoof lesions. Producers could routinely observe their cattle for these indicators to assist in the identification of cows that may require treatment. This could help reduce the duration of clinical lameness through earlier intervention.

Prevalence of lameness and associated risk factors on dairy farms in the Maritime Provinces of Canada.

Lameness in dairy cattle is a major issue for the industry due to the effects on the welfare of the animal, the economic impact, and consumer perception. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of lameness and explore potential risk factors in the Maritime Provinces of Canada. Cows were scored for lameness and potential risk factors and were assessed in 46 freestall herds and 33 tiestall herds in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island. In freestall herds, lameness was assessed using the most common method, locomotion scoring. A cow with a gait score of ≥3 out of 5 was considered to be lame. In tiestall herds, lameness was assessed using an alternative method known as stall lameness scoring. This assessment consisted of observation of the cow for 4 behavioral changes: standing on the edge of the stall, shifting weight, resting a limb, and uneven weight bearing when moved side to side. A cow displaying 2 or more of these behaviors was considered to be lame. At the time of the assessment, other animal-, environmental-, and management-based measurements were collected. These measurements were used in multivariable logistic regression analysis to determine risk factors that were associated with lameness for both freestalls and tiestalls independently. The prevalence of lameness was 21% for freestall-housed cattle and 15% for tiestall-housed cattle. Of the 1,488 tiestall-housed cows that were assessed, 68% showed no behavioral changes, whereas 15, 15, 2, and <1% showed 1, 2, 3, or 4 changes, respectively. In freestalls, higher odds of lameness were seen when cows spent ≥3 h/d in the holding area for milking compared with those that spent <3 h/d. In tiestall herds, higher odds of lameness were seen when bedding material was wet compared with when it was dry. For both lactating cow facility types, housing the dry cows and heifers on a deep bedded pack compared with tiestalls or freestalls was associated with a decreased odds of lameness. There were also many cow-level variables associated with lameness, including parity, daily milk production, stage of production, body condition, and width at the tuber coxae (hook bones). If producers become aware of the risk factors associated with lameness, they can make informed decisions on where to implement changes to help reduce the level of lameness in their herd.

Prevalence of hock, knee, and neck skin lesions and associated risk factors in dairy herds in the Maritime Provinces of Canada.

Skin lesions are commonly seen in dairy herds and have been associated with animal-, environmental-, and management factors. These lesions are not only a welfare concern, but they also affect profitability. Three areas on the cattle were examined for skin lesions: the hock, knee, and neck. Previous Canadian studies estimating the prevalence of lesions and the risk factors associated with them have not included the Maritime Provinces. In this study, 73 herds in the Maritime Provinces were chosen voluntarily to participate, with both tiestalls (n = 33) and freestalls (n = 40) represented. Within each herd, 67 to 90% of the lactating cows were selected and assessed for potential animal-, environmental-, and management-based risk factors. If producers were aware of the potential risk factors, this could help them reduce the prevalence in their herd. Leg lesions were scored on a 4-point scale (0-3) based on hair loss, swelling, and scabs, with a lesion defined as a score of 2 or 3 on at least 1 hock or knee. Necks were scored on a 3-point scale (0-2), with a lesion defined as score 2. For freestalls, the prevalence (95% confidence interval) of hock lesions was 39% (29-49%), knee lesions was 14% (11-18%), and neck lesions was 1% (<1-2%). Similarly, for tiestalls the prevalence (95% confidence interval) of hock lesions was 39% (33-46%), knee lesions was 17% (13-22%), and neck lesions was 5% (3-8%). Due to differences in management and methods of assessment between facility types, tiestalls and freestalls were analyzed separately. Due to dichotomization of cows as having a skin lesion or not, random-effects multivariable logistic regression was used to determine the risk factors for each lesion and facility type. Several environmental-based measurements, such as the stall base, type and dryness of bedding, and type of milking parlor, were associated with leg lesions. An environmental-based measurement that was associated with neck lesions was the design of the feed rail barrier in freestalls and the dimensions of the tie rail in tiestalls. Animal-based risk factors, such as stage of lactation, parity, and body condition, were also associated with all 3 types of lesions. This study showed that lesions to the hock, knee, and neck were common in the Maritime Provinces of Canada. Although differences were seen between facility types, in general, the results suggest that improving stall design and management and feed bunk design would help producers reduce the number of skin lesions seen in dairy cattle.

Factors affecting mortality risk during transportation of broiler chickens for slaughter in Atlantic Canada.

Mortality of broilers during transport and lairage before slaughter represents an economic loss to the poultry industry and a welfare issue that needs to be addressed. In Canada, broilers can be transported long distances and be exposed to environmental factors, such as cold temperatures, that can affect the percentage of dead-on-arrivals or DOAs. Slaughter plant records for loads transported over a 19-month period in 2009-2010 were examined to identify factors affecting mortality risk (% DOA) during transportation from the rearing barn to the slaughter plant. Information from 2007 loads was analysed using a multilevel linear model. Most of the variation in the mortality risk occurred at the load level rather than at the producer or barn level. There were significant effects of bird sex, age and weight, catching team, journey duration and holding barn duration on mortality risk. The following environmental risk factors increased mortality risk: cold temperatures during the journey and in the holding barn, low crate stocking density during journeys at cold temperature and increased trailer temperature when in the holding barn. The analyses identified risk factors that can be used to refine management practices to mitigate some of the mortality risk. Increased mortality in some loads was associated with environmental conditions that caused deaths from hypothermia, whereas in other circumstances, some deaths likely occurred from hyperthermia. The climatic conditions in Atlantic Canada were responsible for significant risk factors that affected the mortality risk. Although refinement of the management practices described in this study, such as reduced journey and lairage durations, and increased crate stocking density can mitigate some of the mortality risk, the extreme cold conditions experienced during some parts of the year exceeded the capacity of the systems of transportation used to provide environmental conditions that minimise mortality.

Environmental enrichment choices of shelter cats.

Choices made by cats between different types of environmental enrichment may help shelters to prioritize how to most effectively enrich cat housing, especially when limited by space or funds. This study investigates the environmental enrichment use of cats in a choice test. Twenty-six shelter cats were kept singularly in choice chambers for 10days. Each chamber had a central area and four centrally-linked compartments containing different types of environmental enrichment: 1) an empty control, 2) a prey-simulating toy, 3) a perching opportunity, and 4) a hiding opportunity. Cat movement between compartments was quantitatively recorded using a data-logger. Enriched compartments were visited significantly more frequently during the light period than during the dark period. Cats spent a significantly greater percentage of time in the hiding compartment (median=55%, IQR=46) than in the toy compartment (median=2%, IQR=9), or in the empty control compartment (median=4%, IQR=4). These results provide additional evidence to support the value of a hiding box to cats housed in a novel environment, in that they choose hiding relative to other types of environmental enrichment.

Behavioural and faecal glucocorticoid metabolite responses of single caging in six cats over 30†days.

OBJECTIVES: The aim was to characterize the behaviour and faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) responses of six cats (Felis catus) to single caging for 30 days. DESIGN: In this observational study, changes in outcome measures were monitored with habituation to caging. Continuous focal observations of the activity, location in the cage, and posture were conducted from video recordings for one 24-hour period/week/cat. Cat-Stress-Scores were recorded daily. All faecal samples were collected for analysis of FGM. RESULTS: The percentage time spent eating increased, while percentage time spent grooming decreased, from week 1 to week 2. Cat-Stress-Score declined significantly from week 1 to week 2. FGM concentrations were significantly greater in week 1 than in week 5. A posthabituation time budget of the behaviour of the cats in the single cages showed that inactivity dominated the time budget and the cats were located on the shelf almost half of the time. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggests that a shelf was a resource of value to the cats, and that its inclusion in enclosure design is important. Quantitative and qualitative behavioural data indicated that there was an initial stress response to caging that stabilised after the first week, while FGM concentration took longer to stabilise.

Behavioural and physiological measures following treadmill exercise as potential indicators to evaluate fatigue in sheep.

The welfare consequences of long-distance transportation of animals remain a controversial topic. Animals that stand for most of the long journey (especially if additional muscular activity is required to deal with postural instability) are at risk of developing fatigue. Previous observational studies of behaviour and physiology suggested either that sheep do not become markedly fatigued by long journeys or that previous methods did not adequately identify fatigue. A range of behavioural and physiological measures were made on eight pairs of sheep during and after treadmill exercise. Within each pair of sheep, a treatment sheep was walked on a treadmill at 0.5 m/s for up to 5 h or until the sheep voluntarily stopped exercising or showed other signs of reduced performance, and a control sheep was exercised for two 10-min periods on either side of the exercise period for the treatment sheep. With the exception of one sheep that only walked for 4.5 h, all treatment sheep walked for 5 h without apparent difficulty. After exercise, the plasma cortisol concentration of treatment sheep was significantly greater than that of control sheep. However, there were no significant treatment effects on plasma creatine kinase activity or blood lactate concentration. After 5 h of exercise, there was a proportionate decrease in the median frequency of the electromyogram recorded over the m. semitendinosus, and this was significantly different from control sheep. There was no evidence that treatment sheep lay down sooner or for longer after treadmill exercise than controls. In sheep tested in a maze to examine whether there was increased motivation to rest after exercise, there was no significant difference between the times taken by treatment and control sheep to obtain a food reward. Qualitative behavioural assessment of the sheep by a panel of observers identified two main dimensions of sheep demeanour, but among descriptors elicited from observers only one person used a term associated with fatigue. No significant difference was found between the scores of treatment and control sheep on these two demeanour dimensions. Thus, there was little evidence that prolonged gentle walking exercise fatigues sheep. Further development of methods to both repeatedly induce and to identify fatigue in sheep is required.

Behavioural and physiological responses of sheep to 16 h transport and a novel environment post-transport.

The effect of a novel lairage environment on the ability of sheep to recover from 16 h of transport was investigated. Sheep were transported from grass paddocks to either novel outside paddocks or inside pens, and housed groups were transported to either familiar or novel inside pens. During transport, sheep from outside paddocks lay down less than those from inside pens. In sheep transported to inside pens, those from outside paddocks spent more time lying and spent less time eating; hay and water intakes during the first 12 h post-transport were lower than those previously kept inside. There was no obvious effect of a novel environment post-transport on blood biochemistry, suggesting that the lower post-transport feed and water intakes in a novel environment did not have a significant effect on the ability of the sheep to recover from the feed and water deprivation associated with transport.

Handling of sheep at markets and the incidence of bruising.

Most sheep sent for slaughter in the United Kingdom are sold through livestock markets. This study counted the potentially bruising events at two markets handling 12,119 sheep in 549 groups and recorded the bruises on carcases of sheep from these markets. There were 1324 and 744 potentially bruising events per 1000 sheep at markets A and B, respectively. The unloading of 1501 sheep in 40 groups and the pre-slaughter handling of 1085 sheep in 60 groups were observed at the commercial slaughterhouse where the bruises were recorded. The number of potentially bruising events at the slaughterhouse was 694 per 1000 sheep. The bruising on the carcases of 58 groups of sheep from market A and 29 groups from market B, and of 30 groups of sheep sent to slaughter direct from farms was assessed. The sheep from market A had 581 bruises per 1000 sheep, those from market B had 377 per 1000 sheep, and the sheep sent direct from farms had 399 bruises per 1000 sheep. There were some differences in the distribution of the bruises on the carcases from the three sources, but no significant differences between the total numbers of bruises.

Effects of handling and transport on bruising of sheep sent directly from farms to slaughter.

The bruising of sheep carcases results in economic losses to the meat industry and is one indicator of welfare problems before slaughter. In this study the numbers of potentially bruising events and the transport conditions of sheep taken directly from farms to a slaughterhouse were related to the occurrence of bruising. Among 2509 sheep in 79 groups the mean number of potentially bruising events was 0.71 per sheep, and they were due mainly to riding behaviour and wool-pulls which occurred most commonly while they were being handled before being stunned. The mean proportion of bruised carcases per group was 0.25, and there was a mean of 0.31 bruises per sheep. Most bruises occurred on the back and were bright red and between 2 and 4 cm in diameter. The mean space allowance per animal on the vehicles was 0.29 m2 and the mean journey time was 251 minutes. A logistic model was used to examine the effects of seven variables on the risk of bruising. More space per animal, transport on the lower deck or at the front of the vehicle, and increased handling all increased the risk of bruising. There were some significant correlations between potentially bruising events and bruising on specific parts of the body.

Effect of pre-slaughter handling on the behaviour and blood composition of beef cattle.

The pre-slaughter handling, behaviour and blood composition of beef cattle at slaughter was studied in a commercial slaughterhouse. The main problems identified were the routine use of driving instruments and delays caused by stoppages in the slaughter line. The plasma concentration of cortisol at the time of slaughter was positively correlated with the time spent standing still and with the time spent in the pre-stun pen. The plasma activity of creatine kinase was positively correlated with the time spent in the race, but no correlations between creatine kinase and physical activity in the race were found. The plasma concentration of glucose was positively correlated with the time spent trotting and the number of times that struggling occurred. The proportions of cattle struggling, vocalizing and defaecating were greatest when they were confined in the race and pre-stun pen. Cattle kept overnight in the lairage had a greater concentration of free fatty acids at the time of slaughter than those slaughtered on the day of arrival. There were no other significant differences in either the blood composition or the handling and behaviour of cattle kept overnight in the lairage, compared with those slaughtered on the day of arrival. Some of the handling problems observed were caused by incorrect design of the handling facilities. There should be some means of removing cattle from a race if delays are encountered and some means of handling the cattle in the race other than by using an electrical goad. The optimal dimensions of races and passageways to prevent crowding and turning around should be assessed at the design stage. Non-slip floors are essential.

Resting behaviour of cattle in a slaughterhouse lairage.

One-hundred and thirty-five groups of cattle were observed in a slaughterhouse lairage. Groups of cattle that arrived direct from farms took longer to lie down and spent less time lying down than those that arrived from markets. In 72 groups, the majority of time was spent with no animals in the group lying down. In only 42 groups was the majority of the time spent with greater than one-half of the group lying down. In 97 groups, over three-quarters of the time in the lairage was spent with no cattle in the group moving. The proportion of time that cattle spent moving and lying down was also affected by the sexual composition of the group and also by group size. In cattle direct from farms, moving behaviour was greater in groups containing cattle with horns than in similar groups that did not contain cattle with horns.

Some preslaughter factors affecting the occurrence of bruising in sheep.

The preslaughter handling and behaviour, and subsequent bruising was observed in 49 groups of sheep in a commercial slaughterhouse. A greater percentage of bruised carcases was found in lambs (71%) than in ewes (49%) (P less than 0.01). A greater percentage of severely bruised carcases was found in lambs from markets (20%) than in those direct from farms (12%) (P less than 0.05). Significant correlations were found between the occurrence of recent bruising and wool-pulls during unloading, riding by another sheep, and hits and squashes against structures at the slaughterhouse. However, even assuming that each potentially traumatic event observed in the slaughterhouse caused a bruise, only about one-quarter of the bruising could have been attributed to handling problems at the slaughterhouse. Eight-eight per cent of all bruises were estimated to have been caused within about 24 h of death, indicating that most bruising probably was caused by handling problems during loading on the farm, during transit and particularly at markets.