Histone chaperone exploits intrinsic disorder to switch acetylation specificity.

Histones, the principal protein components of chromatin, contain long disordered sequences, which are extensively post-translationally modified. Although histone chaperones are known to control both the activity and specificity of histone-modifying enzymes, the mechanisms promoting modification of highly disordered substrates, such as lysine-acetylation within the N-terminal tail of histone H3, are not understood. Here, to understand how histone chaperones Asf1 and Vps75 together promote H3 K9-acetylation, we establish the solution structural model of the acetyltransferase Rtt109 in complex with Asf1 and Vps75 and the histone dimer H3:H4. We show that Vps75 promotes K9-acetylation by engaging the H3 N-terminal tail in fuzzy electrostatic interactions with its disordered C-terminal domain, thereby confining the H3 tail to a wide central cavity faced by the Rtt109 active site. These fuzzy interactions between disordered domains achieve localization of lysine residues in the H3 tail to the catalytic site with minimal loss of entropy, and may represent a common mechanism of enzymatic reactions involving highly disordered substrates.

Structure-Based Design of Scaffolds Targeting PDE10A by INPHARMA-NMR.

Phosphodiesterases (PDE) hydrolyze both cyclic AMP and GMP (cAMP/cGMP) and are responsible for the regulation of their levels in a multitude of cellular functions. PDE10A is expressed in the brain and is a validated target for both schizophrenia and Huntington disease. Here, we address the identification of novel chemical scaffolds that may bind PDE10A via structure-based drug design. For this task, we use INPHARMA, an NMR-based method that measures protein-mediated interligand NOEs between pairs of weakly, competitively binding ligands. INPHARMA is applied to a combination of four chemically diverse PDE10A binding fragments, with the aim of merging their pharmacophoric features into a larger, tighter binding molecule. All four ligands bind the PDE10A cAMP binding domain with affinity in the micromolar range. The application of INPHARMA to identify the correct docking poses of these ligands is challenging due to the nature of the binding pocket and the high content of water-mediated intermolecular contacts. Nevertheless, ensemble docking in the presence of conserved water molecules generates docking poses that are in agreement with all sets of INPHARMA data. These poses are used to build a pharmacophore model with which we search the ZINC database.

Novel homozygous missense mutation in ALDH7A1 causes neonatal pyridoxine dependent epilepsy.

Pyridoxine dependent epilepsy (PDE) (OMIM#266100) is a neonatal form of epilepsy, caused by dysfunction of the enzyme α-aminoadipic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH7A1 or Antiquitin). This enzyme converts α-aminoadipic semialdehyde (α-AASA) into α-aminoadipate (AAA), a critical step in the lysine metabolism of the brain. ALDH7A1 dysfunction causes an accumulation of α-AASA and δ1-piperideine-6-carboxylic acid (P6C), which are in equilibrium with each other. P6C binds and inactivates pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP), the active form of pyridoxine. Individuals affected by ALDH7A1 deficiency show pre-natal and post-natal seizures, which respond to oral pyridoxine but not to other pediatric anti-epileptic drugs. We discovered a novel missense mutation (c.566G > A, p.Gly189Glu) in homozygous state residing in the NAD+ binding domain coding region of exon 6 and affecting an highly conserved amino acid residue. The seizures stopped under post-natal pyridoxine therapy, nevertheless a longer follow-up is needed to evaluate the intellectual development of the child, who is additionally treated with oral l-arginine since the 13th month of life. Developmental delay with or without structural cortex abnormalities were reported in several patients. A brain MRI scan revealed hyperintense white matter in the right cerebellum compatible with cerebellar gliosis. Taken together, our studies enlarge the group of missense pathogenic mutations of ALDH7A1 gene and reveal a novel cerebellar finding within the PDE patients cohort.

Chemical Analysis of a "Miller-Type" Complex Prebiotic Broth : Part II: Gas, Oil, Water and the Oil/Water-Interface.

We have analyzed the chemical variety obtained by Miller-Urey-type experiments using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) spectroscopy, gas chromatography followed by mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and two-dimensional gas chromatography followed by mass spectrometry (GCxGC/MS). In the course of a running Miller-Urey-type experiment, a hydrophobic organic layer emerged besides the hydrophilic aqueous phase and the gaseous phase that were initially present. The gas phase mainly consisted of aromatic compounds and molecules containing C≡C or C≡N triple bonds. The hydrophilic phase contained at least a few thousands of different molecules, primarily distributed in a range of 50 and 500 Da. The hydrophobic phase is characterized by carbon-rich, oil-like compounds and their amphiphilic derivatives containing oxygen with tensioactive properties. The presence of a wide range of oxidized molecules hints to the availability of oxygen radicals. We suggest that they intervene in the formation of alkylated polyethylene glycol (PEG) in the oil/water interface. CARS spectroscopy revealed distinct vibrational molecular signatures. In particular, characteristic spectral bands for cyanide compounds were observed if the broth was prepared with electric discharges in the gaseous phase. The characteristic spectral bands were absent if discharges were released onto the water surface. NMR spectroscopy on the same set of samples independently confirmed the observation. In addition, NMR spectroscopy revealed overall high chemical variability that suggests strong non-linearities due to interdependent, sequential reaction steps.

RflM mediates target specificity of the RcsCDB phosphorelay system for transcriptional repression of flagellar synthesis in Salmonella enterica.

The bacterial flagellum enables directed movement of Salmonella enterica towards favorable conditions in liquid environments. Regulation of flagellar synthesis is tightly controlled by various environmental signals at transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels. The flagellar master regulator FlhD4 C2 resides on top of the flagellar transcriptional hierarchy and is under autogenous control by FlhD4 C2 -dependent activation of the repressor rflM. The inhibitory activity of RflM depends on the presence of RcsB, the response regulator of the RcsCDB phosphorelay system. In this study, we elucidated the molecular mechanism of RflM-dependent repression of flhDC. We show that RcsB and RflM form a heterodimer that coordinately represses flhDC transcription independent of RcsB phosphorylation. RcsB-RflM complex binds to a RcsB box downstream the P1 transcriptional start site of the flhDC promoter with increased affinity compared to RcsB in the absence of RflM. We propose that RflM stabilizes binding of unphosphorylated RcsB to the flhDC promoter in absence of environmental cues. Thus, RflM is a novel auxiliary regulatory protein that mediates target specificity of RcsB for flhDC repression. The cooperative action of the RcsB-RflM repressor complex allows Salmonella to fine-tune initiation of flagellar gene expression and adds another level to the complex regulation of flagellar synthesis.

Chemical Analysis of a "Miller-Type" Complex Prebiotic Broth: Part I: Chemical Diversity, Oxygen and Nitrogen Based Polymers.

In a famous experiment Stanley Miller showed that a large number of organic substances can emerge from sparking a mixture of methane, ammonia and hydrogen in the presence of water (Miller, Science 117:528-529, 1953). Among these substances Miller identified different amino acids, and he concluded that prebiotic events may well have produced many of Life's molecular building blocks. There have been many variants of the original experiment since, including different gas mixtures (Miller, J Am Chem Soc 77:2351-2361, 1955; Oró Nature 197:862-867, 1963; Schlesinger and Miller, J Mol Evol 19:376-382, 1983; Miyakawa et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci 99:14,628-14,631, 2002). Recently some of Miller's remaining original samples were analyzed with modern equipment (Johnson et al. Science 322:404-404, 2008; Parker et al. Proc Natl Acad Sci 108:5526-5531, 2011) and a total of 23 racemic amino acids were identified. To give an overview of the chemical variety of a possible prebiotic broth, here we analyze a "Miller type" experiment using state of the art mass spectrometry and NMR spectroscopy. We identify substances of a wide range of saturation, which can be hydrophilic, hydrophobic or amphiphilic in nature. Often the molecules contain heteroatoms, with amines and amides being prominent classes of molecule. In some samples we detect ethylene glycol based polymers. Their formation in water requires the presence of a catalyst. Contrary to expectations, we cannot identify any preferred reaction product. The capacity to spontaneously produce this extremely high degree of molecular variety in a very simple experiment is a remarkable feature of organic chemistry and possibly prerequisite for Life to emerge. It remains a future task to uncover how dedicated, organized chemical reaction pathways may have arisen from this degree of complexity.

A Distinct, Sequence-Induced Conformation Is Required for Recognition of the Constitutive Decay Element RNA by Roquin.

The constitutive decay element (CDE) of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) mRNA (Tnf) represents the prototype of a class of RNA motifs that mediate rapid degradation of mRNAs encoding regulators of the immune response and development. CDE-type RNAs are hairpin structures featuring a tri-nucleotide loop. The protein Roquin recognizes CDE-type stem loops and recruits the Ccr4-Caf1-Not deadenylase complex to the mRNA, thereby inducing its decay. Stem recognition does not involve nucleotide bases; however, there is a strong stem sequence requirement for functional CDEs. Here, we present the solution structures of the natural Tnf CDE and of a CDE mutant with impaired Roquin binding. We find that the two CDEs adopt unique and distinct structures in both the loop and the stem, which explains the ability of Roquin to recognize stem loops in a sequence-specific manner. Our findings result in a relaxed consensus motif for prediction of new CDE stem loops.

On-the-Fly Integration of Data from a Spin-Diffusion-Based NMR Experiment into Protein-Ligand Docking.

INPHARMA (interligand nuclear Overhauser enhancement for pharmacophore mapping) determines the relative orientation of two competitive ligands in the protein binding pocket. It is based on the observation of interligand transferred NOEs mediated by spin diffusion through protons of the protein and is, therefore, sensitive to the specific interactions of each of the two ligands with the protein. We show how this information can be directly included into a protein-ligand docking program to guide the prediction of the complex structures. Agreement between the experimental and back-calculated spectra based on the full relaxation matrix approach is translated into a score contribution that is combined with the scoring function ChemPLP of our docking tool PLANTS. This combined score is then used to predict the poses of five weakly bound cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) ligands. After optimizing the setup, which finally also included trNOE data and optimized protonation states, very good success rates were obtained for all combinations of three ligands. For one additional ligand, no conclusive results could be obtained due to the ambiguous electron density of the ligand in the X-ray structure, which does not disprove alternative ligand poses. The failures of the remaining ligand are caused by suboptimal locations of specific protein side chains. Therefore, side-chain flexibility should be included in an improved INPHARMA-PLANTS version. This will reduce the strong dependence on the used protein input structure leading to improved scores overall, not only for this last ligand.

Accounting for conformational variability in protein-ligand docking with NMR-guided rescoring.

A key component to success in structure-based drug design is reliable information on protein-ligand interactions. Recent development in NMR techniques has accelerated this process by overcoming some of the limitations of X-ray crystallography and computational protein-ligand docking. In this work we present a new scoring protocol based on NMR-derived interligand INPHARMA NOEs to guide the selection of computationally generated docking modes. We demonstrate the performance in a range of scenarios, encompassing traditionally difficult cases such as docking to homology models and ligand dependent domain rearrangements. Ambiguities associated with sparse experimental information are lifted by searching a consensus solution based on simultaneously fitting multiple ligand pairs. This study provides a previously unexplored integration between molecular modeling and experimental data, in which interligand NOEs represent the key element in the rescoring algorithm. The presented protocol should be widely applicable for protein-ligand docking also in a different context from drug design and highlights the important role of NMR-based approaches to describe intermolecular ligand-receptor interactions.

Structural principles of RNA catalysis in a 2'-5' lariat-forming ribozyme.

RNA-catalyzed lariat formation is present in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. To date we lack structural insights into the catalytic mechanism of lariat-forming ribozymes. Here, we study an artificial 2'-5' AG1 lariat-forming ribozyme that shares the sequence specificity of lariat formation with the pre-mRNA splicing reaction. Using NMR, we solve the structure of the inactive state of the ribozyme in the absence of magnesium. The reaction center 5'-guanosine appears to be part of a helix with an exceptionally widened major groove, while the lariat-forming A48 is looped out at the apex of a pseudoknot. The model of the active state built by mutational analysis, molecular modeling, and small-angle X-ray scattering suggests that A48 is recognized by a conserved adenosine, juxtaposed to the 5'-guanosine in one base-pair step distance, while the G1-N7 coordinates a magnesium ion essential for the activation of the nucleophile. Our findings offer implications for lariat formation in RNA enzymes including the mechanism of the recognition of the branch-site adenosine.

Single-shot NMR measurement of protein unfolding landscapes.

The transient unfolding events from the native state of a protein towards higher energy states can be closely investigated by studying the process of hydrogen exchange. Here, we present BLUU-Tramp (Biophysics Laboratory University of Udine-Temperature ramp), a new method to measure the rates for the exchange process and the underlying equilibrium thermodynamic parameters, using just a single sample preparation, in a single experiment that lasts some 20 to 60h depending on the protein thermal stability, to record hundreds of points over a virtually continuous temperature window. The method is suitable also in presence of other proteins in the sample, if only the target protein is (15)N-labelled. This allows the complete thermodynamic description of the unfolding landscape at an atomic level in the presence of small or macromolecular ligands or cosolutes, or in physiological environments. The method was successfully tested with human ubiquitin. Then the unfolding thermodynamic parameters were satisfactorily determined for the amyloidogenic protein ß(2)-microglobulin, in aqueous buffer and in synovial liquid, that is the natural medium of amyloid deposition in joints.

Determining the energy landscape of proteins by a fast isotope exchange NMR approach.

We present a new and efficient NMR method, BLUU-Tramp (Biophysics Laboratory University of Udine temperature ramp), for the collection of hydrogen-deuterium exchange experiments as a function of time and temperature for small and medium-sized proteins. Exchange rates can be determined to extract the underlying thermodynamic equilibrium or kinetic parameters by sampling hundreds of points over a virtually continuous temperature ramp. Data are acquired in a single experimental session that lasts some 20-60 h, depending on the thermal stability of the protein. Subsequent analysis provides a complete thermodynamic description of the protein energy landscape. The global thermal unfolding process and the partial or local structure opening events can be fully determined at the single-residue resolution level. The proposed approach is shown to work successfully with the amyloidogenic protein ß(2)-microglobulin. With (15)N-labeling, the unfolding landscape of a protein can also be studied in the presence of other unlabeled proteins and, in general, with ligands or cosolutes or in physiological environments.

Molecular dynamics simulation of ß2-microglobulin in denaturing and stabilizing conditions.

ß2-Microglobulin has been a model system for the study of fibril formation for 20 years. The experimental study of ß2-microglobulin structure, dynamics, and thermodynamics in solution, at atomic detail, along the pathway leading to fibril formation is difficult because the onset of disorder and aggregation prevents signal resolution in Nuclear Magnetic Resonance experiments. Moreover, it is difficult to characterize conformers in exchange equilibrium. To gain insight (at atomic level) on processes for which experimental information is available at molecular or supramolecular level, molecular dynamics simulations have been widely used in the last decade. Here, we use molecular dynamics to address three key aspects of ß2-microglobulin, which are known to be relevant to amyloid formation: (1) 60 ns molecular dynamics simulations of ß2-microglobulin in trifluoroethanol and in conditions mimicking low pH are used to study the behavior of the protein in environmental conditions that are able to trigger amyloid formation; (2) adaptive biasing force molecular dynamics simulation is used to force cis-trans isomerization at Proline 32 and to calculate the relative free energy in the folded and unfolded state. The native-like trans-conformer (known as intermediate 2 and determining the slow phase of refolding), is simulated for 10 ns, detailing the possible link between cis-trans isomerization and conformational disorder; (3) molecular dynamics simulation of highly concentrated doxycycline (a molecule able to suppress fibril formation) in the presence of ß2-microglobulin provides details of the binding modes of the drug and a rationale for its effect.

Effect of tetracyclines on the dynamics of formation and destructuration of beta2-microglobulin amyloid fibrils.

The discovery of methods suitable for the conversion in vitro of native proteins into amyloid fibrils has shed light on the molecular basis of amyloidosis and has provided fundamental tools for drug discovery. We have studied the capacity of a small library of tetracycline analogues to modulate the formation or destructuration of ß2-microglobulin fibrils. The inhibition of fibrillogenesis of the wild type protein was first established in the presence of 20% trifluoroethanol and confirmed under a more physiologic environment including heparin and collagen. The latter conditions were also used to study the highly amyloidogenic variant, P32G. The NMR analysis showed that doxycycline inhibits ß2-microglobulin self-association and stabilizes the native-like species through fast exchange interactions involving specific regions of the protein. Cell viability assays demonstrated that the drug abolishes the natural cytotoxic activity of soluble ß2-microglobulin, further strengthening a possible in vivo therapeutic exploitation of this drug. Doxycycline can disassemble preformed fibrils, but the IC(50) is 5-fold higher than that necessary for the inhibition of fibrillogenesis. Fibril destructuration is a dynamic and time-dependent process characterized by the early formation of cytotoxic protein aggregates that, in a few hours, convert into non-toxic insoluble material. The efficacy of doxycycline as a drug against dialysis-related amyloidosis would benefit from the ability of the drug to accumulate just in the skeletal system where amyloid is formed. In these tissues, the doxycycline concentration reaches values several folds higher than those resulting in inhibition of amyloidogenesis and amyloid destructuration in vitro.

Conformational stability of neuroglobin helix F--possible effects on the folding pathway within the globin family.

Neuroglobin is a recently discovered member of the globin family, mainly observed in neurons and retina. Despite the low sequence identity (less than 20% over the whole sequence for the human proteins), the general fold of neuroglobin closely resembles that of myoglobin. The latter is a paradigmatic protein for folding studies, whereas much less is known about the neuroglobin folding pathway. In this work, we show how the structural features of helix F in neuroglobin and myoglobin could represent a pivotal difference in their folding pathways. Former studies widely documented that myoglobin lacks helix F in the apo form. In this study, limited proteolysis experiments on aponeuroglobin showed that helix F does not undergo proteolytic cleavage, suggesting that, also in the apo form, this helix maintains a rigid and structured conformation. To understand better the structural properties of helices F in the two proteins, we analyzed peptides encompassing helix F of neuroglobin and myoglobin in the wild-type and mutant forms. NMR and CD experiments revealed a helical conformation for neuroglobin helix F peptide, at both pH 7 and pH 2, absent in the myoglobin peptide. In particular, NMR data suggest a secondary structure stabilization effect caused by hydrophobic interactions involving Tyr88, Leu89 and Leu92. Molecular dynamics simulations performed on the apo and holo forms of the two proteins reveal the persistence of helix F in neuroglobin even in the absence of heme. Conversely myoglobin shows a higher mobility of the N-terminus of helix F on heme removal, which leads to the loss of secondary structure.

The solution structure of DNA-free Pax-8 paired box domain accounts for redox regulation of transcriptional activity in the pax protein family.

Pax-8 is a transcription factor belonging to the PAX genes superfamily and its crucial role has been proven both in embryo and in the adult organism. Pax-8 activity is regulated via a redox-based mechanism centered on the glutathionylation of specific cysteines in the N-terminal region (Cys45 and Cys57). These residues belong to a highly evolutionary conserved DNA binding site: the Paired Box (Prd) domain. Crystallographic protein-DNA complexes of the homologues Pax-6 and Pax-5 showed a bipartite Prd domain consisting of two helix-turn-helix (HTH) motifs separated by an extended linker region. Here, by means of nuclear magnetic resonance, we show for the first time that the HTH motifs are largely defined in the unbound Pax-8 Prd domain. Our findings contrast with previous induced fit models, in which Pax-8 is supposed to largely fold upon DNA binding. Importantly, our data provide the structural basis for the enhanced chemical reactivity of residues Cys45 and Cys57 and explain clinical missense mutations that are not obviously related to the DNA binding interface of the paired box domain. Finally, sequence conservation suggests that our findings could be a general feature of the Pax family transcription factors.