Essential role of microphthalmia transcription factor for DNA replication, mitosis and genomic stability in melanoma.

Malignant melanoma is an aggressive cancer known for its notorious resistance to most current therapies. The basic helix-loop-helix microphthalmia transcription factor (MITF) is the master regulator determining the identity and properties of the melanocyte lineage, and is regarded as a lineage-specific 'oncogene' that has a critical role in the pathogenesis of melanoma. MITF promotes melanoma cell proliferation, whereas sustained supression of MITF expression leads to senescence. By combining chromatin immunoprecipitation coupled to high throughput sequencing (ChIP-seq) and RNA sequencing analyses, we show that MITF directly regulates a set of genes required for DNA replication, repair and mitosis. Our results reveal how loss of MITF regulates mitotic fidelity, and through defective replication and repair induces DNA damage, ultimately ending in cellular senescence. These findings reveal a lineage-specific control of DNA replication and mitosis by MITF, providing new avenues for therapeutic intervention in melanoma. The identification of MITF-binding sites and gene-regulatory networks establish a framework for understanding oncogenic basic helix-loop-helix factors such as N-myc or TFE3 in other cancers.

Involvement of TNF-alpha in abnormal adipocyte and muscle sortilin expression in obese mice and humans.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: Insulin resistance is caused by numerous factors including inflammation. It is characterised by defective insulin stimulation of adipocyte and muscle glucose transport, which requires the glucose transporter GLUT4 translocation towards the plasma membrane. Defects in insulin signalling can cause insulin resistance, but alterations in GLUT4 trafficking could also play a role. Our goal was to determine whether proteins controlling GLUT4 trafficking are altered in insulin resistance linked to obesity. METHODS: Using real-time RT-PCR, we searched for selected transcripts that were differentially expressed in adipose tissue and muscle in obese mice and humans. Using various adipocyte culture models and in vivo mice treatment, we searched for the involvement of TNF-alpha in these alterations in obesity. RESULTS: Sortilin mRNA and protein were downregulated in adipose tissue from obese db/db and ob/ob mice, and also in muscle. Importantly, sortilin mRNA was also decreased in morbidly obese human diabetic patients. Sortilin and TNF-alpha (also known as TNF) mRNA levels were inversely correlated in mice and human adipose tissues. TNF-alpha decreased sortilin mRNA and protein levels in cultured mouse and human adipocytes, an effect partly prevented by the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma activator rosiglitazone. TNF-alpha also inhibited adipocyte and muscle sortilin mRNA when injected to mice. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: Sortilin, an essential player in adipocyte and muscle glucose metabolism through the control of GLUT4 localisation, is downregulated in obesity and TNF-alpha is likely to be involved in this defect. Chronic low-grade inflammation in obesity could thus contribute to insulin resistance by modulating proteins that control GLUT4 trafficking.

The nitric oxide-donating derivative of acetylsalicylic acid, NCX 4016, stimulates glucose transport and glucose transporters translocation in 3T3-L1 adipocytes.

NCX 4016 is a nitric oxide (NO)-donating derivative of acetylsalicylic acid. NO and salicylate, in vivo metabolites of NCX 4016, were shown to be potential actors in controlling glucose homeostasis. In this study, we evaluated the action of NCX 4016 on the capacity of 3T3-L1 adipocytes to transport glucose in basal and insulin-stimulated conditions. NCX 4016 induced a twofold increase in glucose uptake in parallel with the translocation of the glucose transporters GLUT1 and GLUT4 to the plasma membrane, leaving unaffected their total expression levels. Importantly, NCX 4016 further increased glucose transport induced by a physiological concentration of insulin. The stimulatory effect of NCX 4016 on glucose uptake appears to be mediated by its NO moiety. Indeed, it is inhibited by a NO scavenger and treatment with acetylsalicylic or salicylic acid had no effect. Although NO is involved in the action of NCX 4016, it did not mainly depend on the soluble cGMP cyclase/protein kinase G pathway. Furthermore, NCX 4016-stimulated glucose transport did not involve the insulin-signaling cascade required to stimulate glucose transport. NCX 4016 induces a small activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinases p38 and c-Jun NH(2)-terminal kinase and no activation of other stress-activated signaling molecules, including extracellular signal-regulated kinase, inhibitory factor kappaB, or AMP-activated kinases. Interestingly, NCX 4016 modified the content of S-nitrosylated proteins in adipocytes. Taken together, our results indicate that NCX 4016 induced glucose transport in adipocytes through a novel mechanism possibly involving S-nitrosylation. NCX 4016 thus possesses interesting characteristics to be considered as a candidate molecule for the treatment of patients suffering from metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes.

Rab proteins in endocytosis and Glut4 trafficking.

The intracellular trafficking of numerous proteins requires a tight control to fulfil their physiological functions. It is the case of the adipocyte and muscle glucose transporter Glut4 that is retained intracellularly until insulin induces its recruitment to the plasma membrane. Rabs are evolutionarily conserved small GTPases that control intracellular traffic events from yeast to mammalian cells. In the past few decades, considerable progresses have been made in identifying the route of Glut4, the Rabs involved in controlling it, and more recently the connection between insulin signalling and Glut4 trafficking through Rab activity control.

p38MAP Kinase activity is required for human primary adipocyte differentiation.

Little is known about the role of p38MAPK in human adipocyte differentiation. Here we showed that p38MAPK activity increases during human preadipocytes differentiation. Pharmacological inhibition of p38MAPK during adipocyte differentiation of primary human preadipocytes markedly reduced triglycerides accumulation and adipocyte markers expression. Cell cycle arrest or proliferation was not affected by p38MAPK inhibition. Although induction of C/EBPbeta was not altered by the p38MAPK inhibitor, its phosphorylation on Threonine(188) was decreased as well as PPARgamma expression. These results indicate that p38MAPK plays a positive role in human adipogenesis through regulation of C/EBPbeta and PPARgamma factors.

The role of small G-proteins in the regulation of glucose transport (review).

Insulin increases the rate of glucose transport into fat and muscle cells by stimulating the translocation of intracellular Glut 4-containing vesicles to the plasma membrane. This results in a marked increase in the amount of the facilitative glucose transporter Glut 4 at the cell surface, allowing for an enhanced glucose uptake. This process requires a continuous cycling through the early endosomes, a Glut 4 specific storage compartment and the plasma membrane. The main effect of insulin is to increase the rate of Glut 4 trafficking from its specific storage compartment to the plasma membrane. The whole phenomenon involves signal transduction from the insulin receptor, vesicle trafficking (sorting and fusion processes) and actin cytoskeleton modifications, which are all supposed to require small GTPases. This review describes the potential role of the various members of the Ras, Rad, Rho, Arf and Rab families in the traffic of the Glut 4-containing vesicles.

Role of the FYVE finger and the RUN domain for the subcellular localization of Rabip4.

Rabip4 is a Rab4 effector, which possesses a RUN domain, two coiled-coil domains, and a FYVE finger. It is associated with the early endosomes and leads, in concert with Rab4, to the enlargement of endosomes, resulting in the fusion of sorting and recycling endosomes. Our goal was to characterize the role of these various domains in Rabip4 subcellular localization and their function in Chinese hamster ovary cells. Although the FYVE finger domain specifically bound phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate and was necessary for the function of Rabip4, it was not sufficient for the protein association with membranes. Indeed a protein containing the FYVE finger and the Rab4-binding site was cytosolic, whereas the total protein was mostly associated to the membrane fraction, whether or not cells were pretreated with wortmannin. By contrast, a construct corresponding to the N-terminal end, Rabip4-(1-212), and containing the RUN domain was membrane-associated. The complete protein partitioned between the Triton X-100-insoluble and -soluble fractions and a wortmannin treatment increased the amount of the protein in the Triton X-100 fraction. Rabip4-(1-212) was totally Triton X-100-insoluble, and confocal microscopic examination showed that it labeled not only the endosomes, positive for Rabip4, but also a filamentous network with a honeycomb appearance. The Triton X-100-insoluble fraction that contains Rabip4 did not correspond to the caveolin or glycosylphosphatidylinositol-enriched lipid rafts. Rabip4 did not appear directly linked to actin but seemed associated to the actin network. We propose that the subcellular localization of the protein is primarily driven by the RUN domain to endosomal microdomains characterized by Triton X-100 insolubility and that the FYVE domain and the Rab4-binding domain then allow for the recruitment of the protein to lipophilic microdomains enriched in phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate.

Expression of a prenylation-deficient Rab4 inhibits the GLUT4 translocation induced by active phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and protein kinase B.

The small GTPase Rab4 has been shown to participate in the subcellular distribution of GLUT4 under both basal and insulin-stimulated conditions in adipocytes. In the present work, we have characterized the effect of Rab4 DeltaCT, a prenylation-deficient and thus cytosolic form of Rab4, in this process. We show that the expression of Rab4 DeltaCT in freshly isolated adipocytes inhibits insulin-induced GLUT4 translocation, but only when this protein is in its GTP-bound active form. Further, it not only blocks the effect of insulin, but also that of a hyperosmotic shock, but does not interfere with the effect of zinc ions on GLUT4 translocation. Rab4 DeltaCT was then shown to prevent GLUT4 translocation induced by the expression of an active form of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase or of protein kinase B, without altering the activities of the enzymes. Our results are consistent with a role of Rab4 DeltaCT acting as a dominant negative protein towards Rab4, possibly by binding to Rab4 effectors.

A FYVE-finger-containing protein, Rabip4, is a Rab4 effector involved in early endosomal traffic.

The small GTPase Rab4 is implicated in endocytosis in all cell types, but also plays a specific role in some regulated processes. To better understand the role of Rab4 in regulation of vesicular trafficking, we searched for an effector(s) that specifically recognizes its GTP-bound form. We cloned a ubiquitous 69-kDa protein, Rabip4, that behaves as a Rab4 effector in the yeast two-hybrid system and in the mammalian cell. Rabip4 contains two coiled-coil domains and a FYVE-finger domain. When expressed in CHO cells, Rabip4 is present in early endosomes, because it is colocated with endogenous Early Endosome Antigen 1, although it is absent from Rab11-positive recycling endosomes and Rab-7 positive late endosomes. The coexpression of Rabip4 with active Rab4, but not with inactive Rab4, leads to an enlargement of early endosomes. It strongly increases the degree of colocalization of markers of sorting (Rab5) and recycling (Rab11) endosomes with Rab4. Furthermore, the expression of Rabip4 leads to the intracellular retention of a recycling molecule, the glucose transporter Glut 1. We propose that Rabip4, an effector of Rab4, controls early endosomal traffic possibly by activating a backward transport step from recycling to sorting endosomes.

From insulin receptor signalling to Glut 4 translocation abnormalities in obesity and insulin resistance.

Insulin resistance is commonly associated with obesity in rodents. Using mice made obese with goldthioglucose (GTG-obese mice), we have shown that insulin resistance results from defects at the level of the receptor and from intracellular alterations in insulin signalling pathway, without major alteration in the number of the Glut 4 glucose transporter. Activation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI 3-kinase) was found to be profoundly affected in response to insulin. This defect appears very early in the development of obesity, together with a marked decrease in IRS 1 tyrosine phosphorylation. In order to better understand the abnormalities in glucose transport in insulin resistance, we have studied the pathway leading from the insulin receptor kinase stimulation to the translocation of the Glut 4 containing vesicles. This stimulation involves the activation of PI 3-kinase, which in turns activates protein kinase B. We have then focussed at the mechanism of vesicle exocytosis, and more specifically at the role of the small GTPase Rab4 in this process. We have shown that Rab4 participates, first in the intracellular retention of the Glut 4 containing vesicles, second in the insulin signalling pathway leading to glucose transporter translocation.

Insulin promotes phosphorylation and activation of geranylgeranyltransferase II. Studies with geranylgeranylation of rab-3 and rab-4.

Rab proteins play a crucial role in the trafficking of intracellular vesicles. Rab proteins are GTPases that cycle between an inactive GDP-bound form and an active GTP-bound conformation. A prerequisite to Rab activation by GTP loading is its post-translational modification by the addition of geranylgeranyl moieties to highly conserved C-terminal cysteine residues. We examined the effect of insulin on the activity of geranylgeranyltransferase II (GGTase II) in 3T3-L1 fibroblasts and adipocytes. In fibroblasts, insulin increased the enzymatic activity of GGTase II 2.5-fold after 1 h of incubation, an effect that is blocked by perillyl alcohol, an inhibitor of prenyltransferases, but not by the geranylgeranyltransferase I inhibitor, GGTI-298, or the farnesyltransferase inhibitor, alpha-hydroxyfarnesylphosphonic acid. Concomitantly, insulin stimulated the phosphorylation of the GGTase II alpha-subunit without any effect on the GGTase II beta-subunit. At the same time, insulin also increased the amounts of geranylgeranylated Rab-3 in 3T3-L1 fibroblasts from 44 +/- 1.2% in control cells to 63 +/- 3.8 and 64 +/- 6.1% after 1 and 24 h of incubation, respectively. In adipocytes, insulin increased the amounts of geranylgeranylated Rab-4 from 38 +/- 0.6% in control cells to 56 +/- 1.7 and 60 +/- 2.6% after 1 and 24 h of incubation, respectively. In both fibroblasts and adipocytes, the presence of perillyl alcohol blocked the ability of insulin to increase geranylgeranylation of Rab-4, whereas GGTI-298 and alpha-hydroxyfarnesylphosphonic acid were without effect, indicating that insulin activates GGTase II. In summary, insulin promotes phosphorylation and activation of GGTase II in both 3T3 L1 fibroblasts and adipocytes and increases the amounts of geranylgeranylated Rab-3 and Rab-4 proteins.

The small guanosine triphosphate-binding protein Rab4 is involved in insulin-induced GLUT4 translocation and actin filament rearrangement in 3T3-L1 cells.

Insulin's stimulation of glucose transport involves the translocation of vesicles containing the glucose transporter GLUT4 to the plasma membrane. Small GTP-binding proteins have been implicated in the regulation of vesicular traffic. We studied the effects of microinjection of wild-type Rab4 glutathione S-transferase fusion protein (WT Rab4), a GTP-binding defective mutant (Rab4 N121I), a guanosine triphosphatase-defective mutant (Rab4 Q67L), and a Rab4 antibody on insulin-induced GLUT4 translocation in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Microinjection of Rab4 N121I and Rab4 antibodies had no effect on basal GLUT4 staining, but inhibited insulin-induced GLUT4 translocation by 50% compared with that in control IgG-injected cells. WT Rab4 and Rab4 Q67L microinjection had no effect on either basal or insulin-induced GLUT4 translocation. Premixing and coinjection of the Rab4 antibody with WT Rab4 almost completely abolished its inhibitory effect on insulin-induced GLUT4 translocation. In contrast, microinjection of an antibody directed against the highly conserved region of Rab3 proteins had no effect on insulin-induced GLUT4. These results point to a direct role of Rab4 in insulin-induced GLUT4 translocation, and that this effect is dependent on nucleotide binding to the protein. We also studied the effect of microinjection of the same proteins on insulin-induced actin filament rearrangement (membrane ruffling) in the same cell line. Microinjection of Rab4 N121I and Rab4 antibodies inhibited insulin-induced membrane ruffling by 40%, whereas WT Rab4 or a Rab3 antibody injection had no effect on cytoskeletal rearrangement. In summary, 1) Rab4 is a necessary component of the insulin/GLUT4 translocation signaling pathway; 2) the function of Rab4 in this pathway requires GTP binding; 3) Rab4 also participates in the process of insulin-induced membrane ruffling; and 4) Rab3 proteins do not seem to be involved in these processes.

Potential role of Rab4 in the regulation of subcellular localization of Glut4 in adipocytes.

A role for Rab4 in the translocation of the glucose transporter Glut4 induced by insulin has been recently proposed. To study more directly the role of this small GTPase, freshly isolated adipocytes were transiently transfected with the cDNAs of both an epitope-tagged Glut4-myc and Rab4, a system which allows direct measurement of the concentration of Glut4 molecules at the cell surface. When cells were cotransfected with Glut4-myc and Rab4, the concentration of Glut4-myc at the cell surface decreased in parallel with the increased expression of Rab4, suggesting that Rab4 participates in the intracellular retention of Glut4. In parallel, the amount of Rab4 associated with the Glut4-containing vesicles increased. When Rab4 was moderately overexpressed, the number of Glut4-myc molecules recruited to the cell surface in response to insulin was similar to that observed in mock-transfected cells, and thus the insulin efficiency was increased. When Rab4 was expressed at a higher level, the amount of Glut4-myc present at the cell surface in response to insulin decreased. Since the overexpressed protein was predominantly cytosolic, this suggests that the cytosolic Rab4 might complex some factor(s) necessary for insulin action. This hypothesis was strengthened by the fact that Rab4 deltaCT, a Rab4 mutant lacking the geranylgeranylation sites, inhibited insulin-induced recruitement of Glut4-myc to the cell surface, even when moderately overexpressed. Rab3D was without effect on Glut4-myc subcellular distribution in basal or insulin-stimulated conditions. While two mutated proteins unable to bind GTP did not decrease the number of Glut4-myc molecules in basal or insulin-stimulated conditions at the plasma membrane, the behavior of a mutated Rab4 protein without GTPase activity was similar to that of the wild-type Rab4 protein, indicating that GTP binding but not its hydrolysis was required for the observed effects. Altogether, our results suggest that Rab4, but not Rab3D, participates in the molecular mechanism involved in the subcellular distribution of the Glut4 molecules both in basal and in insulin-stimulated conditions in adipocytes.

Insulin induces a change in Rab5 subcellular localization in adipocytes independently of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase activation.

We investigated whether Rab5, a small guanosine triphosphatase that regulates early endocytic transport in different cell types is involved in the insulin-regulated endocytic pathways in adipocytes. Rab5 was detected in freshly isolated adipocytes and 3T3-L1 adipocytes, but its expression level was not markedly increased with adipocyte differentiation. After subcellular fractionation of adipocytes incubated in the absence of insulin, Rab5 was found to be abundant in plasma membrane and cytosol, but was also present in high and low density microsomes. This subcellular distribution was compatible with a role in early endocytosis. When cells were incubated with insulin, the concentration of Rab5 decreased by about 50% in the internal compartments. In contrast to Rab4, which also leaves the low density microsomes in response to insulin, Rab5 was not found in Glut4-containing vesicles purified by immunoadsorption on antibodies to Glut4. When adipocytes were treated with wortmannin, an inhibitor of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, the effect of insulin on Rab5 movement was not affected, whereas the insulin-induced movements of Rab4 and Glut4 were abolished. In parallel, wortmannin inhibited the increase in horseradish peroxidase uptake induced by insulin, an index of fluid phase endocytosis, but did not prevent the endocytosis of the glucose transporters. As a whole, our results suggest that Rab5 is not involved in insulin-stimulated Glut4 exocytosis. These results are compatible with the postulated role of Rab5 in the endocytotic pathway, at a step that does not require phosphatidyl-inositol 3-kinase activation.

GTPase activating protein activity for Rab4 is enriched in the plasma membrane of 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Possible involvement in the regulation of Rab4 subcellular localization.

The small guanosine 5'-triphosphate (GTP)ase Rab4 has been suggested to play a role in insulin-induced GLUT4 translocation. Under insulin stimulation, GLUT4 translocates to the plasma membranes, while Rab4 leaves the GLUT4-containing vesicles and becomes cytosolic. Rab proteins cycle between a GTP-bound active form and a guanosine 5'-diphosphate (GDP)-bound inactive form. The intrinsic GTPase activity of Rab proteins is low and the interconversion between the two forms is dependent on accessory factors. In the present work, we searched for a GTPase activating protein (GAP) for Rab4 in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. We used a glutathione-S-transferase (GST)-Rab4 protein which possesses the properties of a small GTPase (ability to bind GDP and GTP and to hydrolyse GTP) and can be isolated in a rapid and efficient way. This GAP activity was observed in 3T3-L1 adipocyte lysates, and was able to accelerate the hydrolysis of the [alpha-32P]GTP bound to GST-Rab4 into [alpha-32P]GDP. This activity, tentatively called Rab4-GAP, was also present in 3T3-L1 fibroblasts. The Rab4-GAP activity was present in total membrane fractions and nearly undetectable in cytosol. Following subcellular fractionation, Rab4-GAP was found to be enriched in plasma membranes when compared to internal microsomes. Insulin treatment of the cells had no effect on the total Rab4-GAP activity or on its subcellular localization. Taking our results together with the accepted model of Rab cycling in intracellular traffic, we propose that Rab4-GAP activity plays a role in the cycling between the GTP- and GDP-bound forms of Rab4, and thus possibly in the traffic of GLUT4-containing vesicles.

Differential effects of insulin and exercise on Rab4 distribution in rat skeletal muscle.

Insulin and exercise cause the translocation of GLUT4 from an intracellular location to the plasma membrane in skeletal muscle. The purpose of this study was to determine if Rab4, a small GTP binding protein that has been implicated in the insulin-stimulated translocation of GLUT4 in adipose cells, is involved in the regulation of transporter translocation in skeletal muscle. Male rats were injected with insulin (20 U i.p.) or exercised on a treadmill(1 h, 20 m/min, 10% grade). Rats were killed 30 min after insulin injection or immediately after exercise, and the hind limb muscles dissected. Plasma membrane and intracellular microsomal membrane fractions were prepared, and the distribution of GLUT4 and Rab4 was determined by immunoblotting. Both insulin and exercise caused GLUT4 translocation as demonstrated by a decrease in microsomal membrane GLUT4 and an increase in plasma membrane GLUT4. In contrast, only insulin caused a decrease in Rab4 in the microsomal membrane. Rab4 was associated with GLUT4-containing vesicles isolated by immunoprecipitation. Rab4 was not detected in plasma membrane under any condition. These data demonstrate that insulin modulates the subcellular distribution of both GLUT4 and Rab4 in rats skeletal muscle, suggesting that Rab4 may play a role in the insulin-stimulated movement of GLUT4-containing vesicles. Although both insulin and exercise increase skeletal muscle glucose uptake by the translocation of GLUT4, the regulation of translocation may occur by different mechanisms.

Wortmannin inhibits the action of insulin but not that of okadaic acid in skeletal muscle: comparison with fat cells.

To look for the possible involvement of phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3-kinase) in insulin action in muscle, we have used wortmannin, described as a specific inhibitor of the enzyme, and compared its effect in muscle and in adipose cells. Both in intact mouse soleus muscle and in isolated rat adipocytes, wortmannin blocked insulin effect on glucose uptake, without markedly altering basal glucose uptake. In adipocyte, this effect results from a blockade of the translocation process because wortmannin inhibited the stimulatory action of insulin on both the Glut 4 movement from the internal compartment to the plasma membranes and the Rab4 departure from the microsomes. In a similar fashion, two other insulin effects, the activation of glycogen synthase and the stimulation of amino acid uptake, were blocked by wortmannin in skeletal muscle. Lipogenesis from acetate was also inhibited by wortmannin in adipocytes. By contrast, wortmannin did not affect muscle deoxglucose uptake when it was stimulated either by okadaic acid or by the protein kinase C activator tumor promoting agent. These results suggest that, in muscle and adipocyte, PI3-kinase inhibition causes a blockade of all insulin effects studied. By contrast, wortmannin did not affect the same responses elicited in muscle by okadaic acid or tumor promoting agent.

Parallel changes in Glut 4 and Rab4 movements in two insulin-resistant states.

Insulin-induced Glut 4 and Rab4 movements were studied in two insulin-resistant states. In adipocytes from streptozotocin diabetic rats, the amount of Glut 4 was decreased by 60%. The remaining Glut 4 molecules were translocated in response to insulin, and in parallel, Rab4 left the intracellular compartment. In contrast, in 3T3-L1 adipocytes rendered insulin-resistant by a prolonged insulin treatment, both Rab4 and Glut 4 remained in the intracellular compartment following an acute insulin stimulation. Those results illustrate a similar behavior of Glut 4 and Rab4 in two situations where insulin resistance results from different mechanisms, and add further support for a role of Rab4 in Glut 4 translocation.

Expression of guanine-nucleotide-binding proteins in lean and obese insulin-resistant mice.

To examine whether G protein were affected in the obese insulin-resistant state, the level of various G proteins (alpha i1, alpha i2, alpha i3, alpha o and alpha s) was assessed by immunodetection in lean and experimentally induced obese mice. Crude membranes were prepared from adipose tissues, muscle, liver, kidney and brain. G alpha-subunits were similar in lean and obese animals in brain, kidney, skeletal or heart muscle. Hepatic G alpha s, G alpha i2 and G alpha i3 subunits were markedly elevated in obese mice. When total tissue contents were considered, interscapular brown adipose tissue and epididymal fat pads from obese animals contained more alpha i2 than the lean tissues, while alpha i1, alpha i3 and alpha s were similar in both groups. However, when expressed per mg of membrane protein, alpha i1, alpha i3 and alpha s were decreased and alpha i2 was normal in white adipose tissue of obese animals. Thus the expression of the G protein alpha-subunits seems to be regulated by tissue-specific factors rather than by circulating factors.