The use and misuse of some positively valenced community concepts.

Considers the usage of four somewhat amorphous, but positively valenced, community mental health terms: primary prevention in mental health (and closely related notions such as wellness enhancement and positive psychology); resilience; charter schools; and empowerment. Use of these concepts often reflects a need to align with currently popular, "in"-terminology, rather than an intrinsic connection between what is being written about and a tight definition of the concept in question. Usages built primarily around a concept's positive valence and glitter tend to: (a) break down communication; (b) confuse rather than clarify; and (c) ultimately retard a field's growth and progress.

Social policy and prevention in mental health.

This article presents policy recommendations relating to two aspects of primary prevention in mental health: (a) preventing adverse negative outcomes and (b) building health and wellness from the start and maintaining it thereafter. Recommendations for reducing diverse negative outcomes and end states reflect interconnections and bidirectional influences among physical, social-interpersonal, cognitive-academic, and "mental health" outcomes.

Caregiving and developmental factors differentiating young at-risk urban children showing resilient versus stress-affected outcomes: a replication and extension.

This study tested hypotheses from an organizational-developmental model for childhood resilience. In this model resilience reflects a child's mastery of age-salient objectives, in the face of substantial adversity, by drawing on internal and external resources that enhance processes of adaptation specific to each developmental stage. Interviews were conducted with parents of 122 7- to 9-year-old urban children exposed to multiple risk factors, 69 classified as resilient and 53 as maladjusted. Consistent with predictions generated by the model: (1) characteristics of a child's caregiving system and early development differentiated children with resilient and stress-affected adaptations; and (2) variables reflecting emotionally responsive, competent parenting were direct, proximal predictors of resilient status and mediators of other caregiver resources such as education, mental health, and relational history. Identified predictors of resilient status, including competent parenting and caregiver psychosocial resources, largely replicated findings from a prior study with sociodemographically comparable 9- to 12-year-old children.

Follow-up study of young stress-affected and stress-resilient urban children.

Reports follow-up study of 181 young highly stressed urban children, classified as stress-resilient (SR) and stress-affected (SA) 1 1/2-2 years earlier. At follow-up (T2), children were retested on five initial (T1) test measures: self-rated adjustment, perceived competence, social problem solving, realistic control attributions, and empathy; parents and teachers did new child adjustment ratings, and parents participated in a phone interview focusing on the T1-T2 interval. Child test and adjustment measures and parent interview responses at T2 sensitively differentiated children classified as SR and SA at T1. Test and interview variables used at T1 and T2 correlated moderately across time periods. At T2, four child test indicators (i.e., rule conformity, global self-worth, social problem solving, and realistic control attributions) and four parent interview variables (positive future expectations for the child, absence of predelinquency indicators, good parent mental health in the past year, and adaptive parent coping strategies) sensitively differentiated children classified as SR and SA at T1. No relationship was found between family stress experienced in the T1-T2 interval and changes in children's adjustment during that period.

The ontogenesis of primary prevention: lengthy strides and stubbed toes.

Reviews evolution of the concept of primary prevention in the past 40 years and cites progress in overcoming significant early deterrents (e.g., loosely anchored, overinclusive definitions; weak supporting empirical base) to this development. Highlights the growing trend to define the concept specifically around the yoked notions of risk, and the goal of forestalling major psychological dysfunction. This de facto shift in definitional emphasis has obscured primary prevention's early vision of promoting health and wellness. Stresses need for a comprehensive, multilevel, proactive approach targeted systematically toward the enhancement of psychological wellness in all people, from the start.

Resilience in highly stressed urban children: concepts and findings.

The Rochester Child Resilience Project is a coordinated set of studies of the correlates and antecedents of outcomes relating to resilience among profoundly stressed urban children. The studies have been conducted over the course of the past decade. Based on child test data, parent, teacher, and self ratings of child adjustment, and in-depth individual interviews with parents and children, a cohesive picture has developed of child and family milieu variables that consistently differentiate children with resilient versus stress-affected outcomes within this highly stressed sample. Resilient children are characterized by an easy temperament and higher IQ; sound parent/child relationships; a parent's sense of efficacy; the parent's own wellness, especially mental health; and the child's perceived competence, realistic control, empathy, and social problem-solving.

A preventive intervention for enhancing resilience among highly stressed urban children.

Describes the development and evaluation of a pilot 12-session, school-based preventive intervention designed to enhance resilience among inner-city children who have experienced major life stress. Thirty-six 4th-6th grade children participated in the intervention in groups of 5-8 co-led by school personnel. The curriculum focussed on understanding feelings in oneself and others, perspective-taking, social problem-solving, dealing with solvable and unsolvable problems, and building self-efficacy and esteem. Pre-post evaluation showed significant improvement among participants on teacher-rated indices of learning problems and task orientation and on child ratings of perceived self-efficacy, realistic control attributions and anxiety. Program limitations and factors that restrict generalization are considered and new directions for program development and research are proposed.

The enhancement of psychological wellness: challenges and opportunities.

Developed the concept of psychological wellness and made the case that proportionally more resources should be directed to the pursuit of this goal. Five pathways to wellness are considered, implicating aspects of individual development and the impact of contexts, settings, and policies. The five pathways are: forming wholesome early attachments; acquiring age- and ability-appropriate competencies; engineering settings that promote adaptive outcomes; fostering empowerment; and acquiring skills needed to cope effectively with life stressors. Although these noncompeting pathways have differential salience at different ages and for different groups and life conditions, each is an essential element in any comprehensive social plan to advance wellness. Examples of effective programs are cited in all five areas, including recent comprehensive, long-term programs embodying multiple pathways to wellness.

Relationships between retrospective parent reports of developmental milestones and school adjustment at ages 10 to 12 years.

OBJECTIVE: The study's main purpose was to assess the extent to which retrospective parent reports of the child's achievement of early developmental milestones predicted later (fourth to sixth grade) adaptation to stress, and school adjustment and achievement, in a highly stressed urban sample. METHOD: Information about when children achieved key developmental milestones was obtained in individual parent interviews. Information about the child's current school adjustment and achievement was obtained from classroom teachers and school records. RESULTS: Factor analysis of a 12-item developmental milestone measure yielded an interpretable two-factor solution, i.e., motor and verbal milestones. Parents of stress-resilient, compared with stress-affected, children reported significantly earlier developmental milestone mastery by their offspring on both factor and total scores. Developmental factor milestone and total scores also related modestly to indicators of good school adjustment and academic achievement at ages 10 to 12 years. CONCLUSION: Delayed mastery of early developmental milestones may be a risk factor toward which preventive interventions can be gainfully targeted.

Parent and child views of parent-child relationship qualities and resilient outcomes among urban children.

Separate in-depth interviews were conducted with two groups of highly stressed 4th-6th grade urban children classified as stress-affected (SA) and stress-resilient (SR), and their parents. Judges identified interview items reflecting three components of a good parent-child relationship, i.e. positive parental attitudes, involvement and guidance. SR parents and children scored higher than their SA counterparts on all three relational dimensions. Additionally, SR parent-child dyads had more congruent views of their relationship than SA dyads. These findings suggest that positive parent-child relationship qualities play an important protective role that favors resilient outcomes, at ages 10-12, among children who have experienced major life stress.

Interviews with children who experienced major life stress: family and child attributes that predict resilient outcomes.

Demographically comparable groups of children exposed to major life-stress, with stress resilient (SR) and stress affected (SA) outcomes at ages 10 to 12, were interviewed to assess perceptions of their caregiving environments, peer relationships, and themselves. SR children compared with SA children reported more: (1) positive relationships with primary caregivers, (2) stable family environments, (3) inductive and consistent family discipline practices, and (4) positive expectations for their futures. SR girls viewed their mothers as more nurturing than did SA girls. Perceptions of fathers, quality of peer relationships, and global self-concept did not differentiate the groups. A discriminant function analysis identified four variables that correctly classified 74% of the subjects as SR or SA. Findings support the view that caregiver-child relationships play a key role in moderating children's developmental outcomes under conditions of high stress.

Similarity of parent and child self-views in stress-affected and stress-resilient urban families.

This study was conducted with a sample of highly stressed 4th-6th grade urban children consisting of matched subsamples previously classified as stress affected (SA) or stress resilient (SR). Separate in-depth interviews with parents and children provided objective self-ratings of a number of personal characteristics and expressive motor behavioral styles. Based on subsets of identical items from the two interviews, discrepancy (D)-scores were computed between parents' and children's self-ratings of ten personal descriptors, seven expressive motor behaviors, and their sum. Significantly lower D-scores were found for SR, compared to SA, parent-child dyads on all three of these measures. For the total sample, small parent-child D-scores also related significantly to indicators of fewer child problem behaviors and more competencies, assessed across multiple rater sources (i.e., parents, former teachers, and current teachers).

An evaluation of the efficacy of a preventive intervention for 4th-6th grade urban children of divorce.

This study evaluates the efficacy of the Children of Divorce Intervention Program (CODIP), a preventive intervention based on social support and coping skills, for 4th-6th grade urban children of divorce. Structure and content of the 14 group sessions were tailored to the developmental level and sociocultural make-up of the target sample. Pre-post comparisons of demographically matched groups of 57 CODIP participants, 38 non-program divorce controls and 93 children from non-divorced families revealed improvements on parent, child and group leader measures of adjustment. Limitations of the study and directions for future research are discussed.

Developmental and family milieu correlates of resilience in urban children who have experienced major life stress.

Reports findings from interviews with parents of demographically-comparable groups of highly-stressed urban children with stress-resilient (SR) and stress-affected (SA) outcomes at ages 10-12. SR and SA children were compared on family milieu and child development variables assessed within a developmental framework. Compared to SAs, parents of SRs scored higher on variables reflecting parent perceptions of a nurturant caregiver-child relationship and self-views as effective caregivers, in the context of positive discipline practices, a child's positive early temperament, and support for primary caregivers. A discriminant function analysis identified seven variables that optimally differentiated the groups and correctly classified 86% of the Ss as SR or SA.

Relationships between support and adjustment among children of divorce.

In a sample of 102 4th-6th grade urban children of divorce, low to moderate relationships were found between perceived support and child adjustment. This relationship held for several sources of support and across several types of adjustment measures. It was strongest when adjustment was assessed through child self-ratings. Thus, children of divorce who perceived themselves as having more overall support had lower scores on measures of post-divorce difficulties, anxiety, and worry, and higher scores on measures of openness about the divorce and positive resources. The relationships found between support and adjustment among children of divorce suggest a potentially useful role for support in developing preventive interventions for such youngsters.

Stress resilient children in an urban setting.

Overviews the Rochester Child Resilience Project, describes its design and measures, and presents preliminary findings. Within a sample of 313 urban 4th-6th graders, convergent sources of evidence identified subsamples of 37 stress affected (SA) and 40 stress resilient (SR) children, all of whom, based on parent report, had experienced ≥4 stressful life events and circumstances (SLE-Cs). The combined SR/SA groups averaged 8.9 SLE-Cs, significantly more than the rest of the sample. Detailed adjustment ratings by current classroom teachers confirmed that SRs were significantly better adjusted than both SAs and a demographically matched low-stress sample. Factor analysis of the stressful events checklist identified 5 factors. Pooled SRs and SAs had higher scores on these factors than the rest of the sample. In direct comparison of the two groups, SAs had higher scores than SRs only on the Family Separation factor.

Test correlates of stress resilience among urban school children.

Compares subsamples of 37 highly stressed children with stress affected (SA) outcomes and 40 demographically similar children with stress resilient (SR) outcomes, identified within a larger sample of 4th-6th grade urban youngsters. Comparisons were made on a battery of 11 measures believed on conceptual and empirical grounds to have potential for differentiating the groups, in an effort to expand the nomological definitional net for childhood resilience. SR children judged themselves as significantly better adjusted and more competent than SAs. They had higher self esteem, more empathy, and both a more internal and more realistic sense of control. They reported more effective problem solving skills and more positive coping strategies. A combination of five predictor variables used in a discriminant function analysis correctly classified 84.1% of the sample as SRs or SAs.

The search for effective prevention programs: what we learned along the way.

Efforts by an American Psychological Association task force to identify model prevention programs for high-risk groups throughout the life span are summarized. Criteria for selection and program content are described, and implications for the construction, implementation, and evaluation of effective programs are discussed.

Resilient children, psychological wellness, and primary prevention.

The concept of heightened resilience or invulnerability in young profoundly stressed children is developed in terms of its implications for a psychology of wellness and for primary prevention in mental health. Relevant literature is reviewed, a skeletal model for studying resilience is outlined, and needed research directions are considered. The latter include expansion of the construct's nomological definitional net, inquiry into the antecedents and determinants of resilience, and the application of such generative information to frame preventive interventions for young, profoundly stressed children.

Children's judgments of event upsettingness and personal experiencing of stressful events.

Five-hundred and three urban and suburban 4th- to 6th-grade schoolchildren judged event upsettingness and reported the occurrence of 22 life events. Judgments of event upsettingness ranged considerably, some corresponding to, others differing from, adult judgments. Children reported experiencing an average of seven events during their lifetimes. Girls judged events to be more upsetting than boys, and fourth and fifth graders judged events to be more upsetting than sixth graders. Urban children reported having experienced more stressful events than suburban children, and sixth graders experienced more events than fourth graders.