Rehydration Rates and Outcomes in Overweight Children With Diabetic Ketoacidosis.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The Pediatric Emergency Care Applied Research Network Fluid Therapies Under Investigation in Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA) (FLUID) Trial found that rapid fluid infusion does not increase the risk of cerebral injury. Concern persists, however, whether fluid rates should be adjusted for overweight or obese patients. We used the FLUID Trial database to evaluate associations between fluid infusion rate and outcomes in these patients. METHODS: We compared children and youth who were overweight, obese, or normal weight, in regard to protocol adherence, mental status changes, time to DKA resolution, and electrolyte abnormalities. We investigated associations between outcomes and the amount of fluid received in these groups. RESULTS: Obese children and youth were more likely to receive fluids at rates slower than dictated by protocol. Overweight and obese children and youth in the fast fluid arms, who received fluids per the study protocol based on their measured weight, had similar rates of mental status changes or clinically apparent cerebral injury as those with normal weights. Risk of hypophosphatemia was increased in those receiving larger initial bolus volumes and reduced in those receiving higher rehydration rates. No other metabolic outcomes were associated with rehydration. CONCLUSIONS: Protocol adherence data in the FLUID Trial suggest that physicians are uncomfortable using weight-based fluid calculations for overweight or obese children. However, higher rates of fluid infusion were not associated with increased risk of mental status changes or cerebral injury, suggesting that physicians should not limit fluid resuscitation in obese children and youth with DKA.

Cognitive function following diabetic ketoacidosis in young children with type 1 diabetes.

INTRODUCTION: Young children with type 1 diabetes (T1D) may be at particularly high risk of cognitive decline following diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA). However, studies of cognitive functioning in T1D typically examine school-age children. The goal of this study was to examine whether a single experience of DKA is associated with lower cognitive functioning in young children. We found that recently diagnosed 3- to 5-year-olds who experienced one DKA episode, regardless of its severity, exhibited lower IQ scores than those with no DKA exposure. METHODS: We prospectively enrolled 46 3- to 5-year-old children, who presented with DKA at the onset of T1D, in a randomized multi-site clinical trial evaluating intravenous fluid protocols for DKA treatment. DKA was moderate/severe in 22 children and mild in 24 children. Neurocognitive function was assessed once 2-6 months after the DKA episode. A comparison group of 27 children with T1D, but no DKA exposure, was also assessed. Patient groups were matched for age and T1D duration at the time of neurocognitive testing. RESULTS: Children who experienced DKA, regardless of its severity, exhibited significantly lower IQ scores than children who did not experience DKA, F(2, 70) = 6.26, p = .003, partial η2  = .15. This effect persisted after accounting for socioeconomic status and ethnicity. CONCLUSIONS: A single DKA episode is associated with lower IQ scores soon after exposure to DKA in young children.

Outcomes of patients discharged from the pediatric emergency department with abnormal vital signs.

BACKGROUND: Vital signs (VS) are used to triage and identify children at risk for severe illness. Few studies have examined the association of pediatric VS at emergency department (ED) discharge with patient outcomes. OBJECTIVE: To determine if children discharged from the ED with abnormal VS have high rates of return visits, admission or adverse outcomes. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective cohort study of children discharged from 2 pediatric EDs with abnormal VS between July 2018-June 2019. We queried electronic health records (EHR) for children ages 0-18 years discharged from the ED with abnormal last recorded VS. VS were considered erroneously entered and thus excluded from analysis if heart rate was <30 or ≥ 300, respiratory rate was 0 or ≥ 100 or oxygen saturation was <50. Patients who were declared deceased at index visit were excluded. Demographic, clinical, and outcome data including return visits within 48 h and adverse outcomes after the initial ED discharge were obtained. RESULTS: Of the 97,824 children evaluated in the EDs during the study period, 17,661 (18.1%) were discharged with abnormal VS. 404 (2.28%) returned to the ED, of which 95 (23.5%) were admitted for the same chief complaint within 48 h. In comparison, the 48-h return rate for children discharged with normal VS was 2.45% (p = 0.219). Children discharged with abnormal VS were more likely to return if they had 2 or more abnormal VS (OR 1.6; 95% CI 1.23-2.07), were less than 3 years old (OR 1.69, 95% CI 1.39-2.06) or their initial acuity level was high (OR 1.34; 95% CI 1.1-1.63). Higher initial acuity level and age less than 3 years were also associated with admission at revisit (OR 2.58; 95% CI 1.59-4.2; OR 2.20, 95% CI 1.36-3.55). Four of the children who returned required PICU admission, but none died, required CPR or endotracheal intubation. CONCLUSION: Although many children were discharged from the ED with abnormal VS, few returned and required admission. Having 2 or more abnormal VS, age less than 3 years and higher acuity increased odds of revisit. Few children suffered serious adverse outcomes.

Comparison of paper and electronic documentation for trauma activations in a pediatric trauma center.

BACKGROUND: There are limited data on the accuracy of documentation of trauma activations in the electronic medical record (EMR) compared with a paper chart. Our primary objective was to compare the accuracy of documentation between a paper chart and EMR in pediatric trauma. METHODS: We studied video recordings of trauma activations at a level 1 pediatric trauma center. These videos were reviewed, and data points collected were used to compare accuracy of documentation in the paper chart and EMR. RESULTS: We reviewed 106 videos with 1614 data points collected. Of those, 805 data points were compared with their corresponding paper chart with 710 data points correctly documented (88.2%). The remaining 809 data points were compared with their corresponding electronic documentation after implementation of the EMR with 681 data points being correctly documented (84.2%). Overall, we found that paper documentation was significantly more accurate than the EMR (p = 0.019). When analyzed in subcategories of pre-arrival information, primary and secondary survey, and interventions, paper documentation was found to be significantly more accurate than the EMR for components of the primary and secondary survey (87.3% vs. 80.4%, p = 0.001). There was no significant difference in accuracy of documentation between paper and EMR for pre-arrival information (88.1% vs. 89.4%) or interventions (90.3% vs. 92%). CONCLUSION: Documentation of trauma activations is overall more accurate using a paper chart than EMR. Although documentation was accurate for most categories using both a paper chart and EMR, we found significantly less accuracy in documentation of the primary and secondary survey in the EMR.

Serum Sodium Concentration and Mental Status in Children With Diabetic Ketoacidosis.

OBJECTIVES: Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is typically characterized by low or low-normal serum sodium concentrations, which rise as hyperglycemia resolves. In retrospective studies, researchers found associations between declines in sodium concentrations during DKA and cerebral injury. We prospectively investigated determinants of sodium concentration changes and associations with mental status alterations during DKA. METHODS: Using data from the Pediatric Emergency Care Applied Research Network Fluid Therapies Under Investigation in Diabetic Ketoacidosis Trial, we compared children who had declines in glucose-corrected sodium concentrations with those who had rising or stable concentrations. Children were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 intravenous fluid protocols that differed in infusion rate and sodium content. Data from the first 4, 8, and 12 hours of treatment were analyzed for 1251, 1086, and 877 episodes, respectively. RESULTS: In multivariable analyses, declines in glucose-corrected sodium concentrations were associated with higher sodium and chloride concentrations at presentation and with previously diagnosed diabetes. Treatment with 0.45% (vs 0.9%) sodium chloride fluids was also associated with declines in sodium concentration; however, higher rates of fluid infusion were associated with declines in sodium concentration only at 12 hours. Frequencies of abnormal Glasgow Coma Scale scores and clinical diagnoses of cerebral injury were similar in patients with and without declines in glucose-corrected sodium concentrations. CONCLUSIONS: Changes in glucose-corrected sodium concentrations during DKA treatment are influenced by the balance of free-water loss versus sodium loss at presentation and the sodium content of intravenous fluids. Declines in glucose-corrected sodium concentrations are not associated with mental status changes during treatment.

Treatment of suspected sepsis and septic shock in children with chronic disease seen in the pediatric emergency department.

BACKGROUND: Research demonstrates that timely recognition and treatment of sepsis can significantly improve pediatric patient outcomes, especially regarding time to intravenous fluid (IVF) and antibiotic administration. Further research suggests that underlying chronic disease in a septic pediatric patient puts them at higher risk for poor outcomes. OBJECTIVE: To compare treatment time for suspected sepsis and septic shock in pediatric patients with chronic disease versus those without chronic disease seen in the Pediatric Emergency Department (PED). METHODS: We reviewed patient data from a pediatric sepsis outcomes dataset collected at two tertiary care pediatric hospital sites from January 2017-December 2018. Patients were stratified into two groups: those with and without chronic disease, defined as any patient with at least one of eight chronic health conditions. INCLUSION CRITERIA: patients seen in the PED ultimately diagnosed with sepsis or septic shock, patient age 0 to 20 years and time zero for identification of sepsis in the PED. EXCLUSION CRITERIA: time zero unavailable, inability to determine time of first IVF or antibiotic administration or patient death within the PED. Primary analysis included comparison of time zero to first IVF and antibiotic administration between each group. RESULTS: 312 patients met inclusion criteria. 169 individuals had chronic disease and 143 did not. Median time to antibiotics in those with chronic disease was 41.9 min versus 43.0 min in patients without chronic disease (p = 0.181). Time to first IVF in those with chronic disease was 22.0 min versus 12.0 min in those without (p = 0.010). Those with an indwelling line/catheter (n = 40) received IVF slower than those without (n = 272), with no significant difference in time to antibiotic administration by indwelling catheter status (p = 0.063). There were no significant differences in the mode of identification of suspected sepsis or septic shock between those with versus without chronic disease (p = 0.27). CONCLUSIONS: Study findings suggest pediatric patients with chronic disease with suspected sepsis or septic shock in the PED have a slower time to IVF administration but equivocal use of sepsis recognition tools compared to patients without chronic disease.

Frequency and Risk Factors of Acute Kidney Injury During Diabetic Ketoacidosis in Children and Association With Neurocognitive Outcomes.

Importance: Acute kidney injury (AKI) occurs commonly during diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) in children, but the underlying mechanisms and associations are unclear. Objective: To investigate risk factors for AKI and its association with neurocognitive outcomes in pediatric DKA. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cohort study was a secondary analysis of data from the Pediatric Emergency Care Applied Research Network Fluid Therapies Under Investigation in DKA Study, a prospective, multicenter, randomized clinical trial comparing fluid protocols for pediatric DKA in 13 US hospitals. Included DKA episodes occurred among children age younger than 18 years with blood glucose 300 mg/dL or greater and venous pH less than 7.25 or serum bicarbonate level less than 15 mEq/L. Exposures: DKA requiring intravenous insulin therapy. Main Outcomes and Measures: AKI occurrence and stage were assessed using serum creatinine measurements using Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes criteria. DKA episodes with and without AKI were compared using univariable and multivariable methods, exploring associated factors. Results: Among 1359 DKA episodes (mean [SD] patient age, 11.6 [4.1] years; 727 [53.5%] girls; 651 patients [47.9%] with new-onset diabetes), AKI occurred in 584 episodes (43%; 95% CI, 40%-46%). A total of 252 AKI events (43%; 95% CI, 39%-47%) were stage 2 or 3. Multivariable analyses identified older age (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] per 1 year, 1.05; 95% CI, 1.00-1.09; P = .03), higher initial serum urea nitrogen (AOR per 1 mg/dL increase, 1.14; 95% CI, 1.11-1.18; P < .001), higher heart rate (AOR for 1-SD increase in z-score, 1.20; 95% CI, 1.09-1.32; P < .001), higher glucose-corrected sodium (AOR per 1 mEq/L increase, 1.03; 95% CI, 1.00-1.06; P = .001) and glucose concentrations (AOR per 100 mg/dL increase, 1.19; 95% CI, 1.07-1.32; P = .001), and lower pH (AOR per 0.1 increase, 0.63; 95% CI, 0.51-0.78; P < .001) as variables associated with AKI. Children with AKI, compared with those without, had lower scores on tests of short-term memory during DKA (mean [SD] digit span recall: 6.8 [2.4] vs 7.6 [2.2]; P = .02) and lower mean (SD) IQ scores 3 to 6 months after recovery from DKA (100.0 [12.2] vs 103.5 [13.2]; P = .005). Differences persisted after adjusting for DKA severity and demographic factors, including socioeconomic status. Conclusions and Relevance: These findings suggest that AKI may occur more frequently in children with greater acidosis and circulatory volume depletion during DKA and may be part of a pattern of multiple organ injury involving the kidneys and brain.

Exhaled end-tidal carbon dioxide as a predictor of lactate and pediatric sepsis.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between exhaled end-tidal carbon dioxide (ETCO2) and serum lactate via nasal capnography and to assess the ability of ETCO2 to predict disease severity in children with suspected sepsis in a pediatric emergency department. METHODS: This prospective study included patients (≥ 30 days to ≤21 years of age) who presented with suspected sepsis to a tertiary pediatric emergency department. Pearson correlation coefficient was generated to measure the linear relationship between ETCO2 and lactate. Receiver operating characteristic curves (ROC) were generated to assess the performance of ETCO2 to predict a lactate ≥2 mmol/L and severe disease. Severe disease was defined as severe sepsis and septic shock. RESULTS: From November 1, 2018 to March 31, 2020, 105 emergency department patients underwent evaluation for suspected sepsis. Sixty-nine patients met the inclusion criteria for the study. There was an inverse relationship between ETCO2 and lactate with a correlation coefficient of -0.34 (p = .005). Severe disease had lower ETCO2 (32 ± 6 mmHg, p < .001) and higher lactate (3.3 ± 1.7 mmol/L, p < .001). The area under the curve (AUC) for ETCO2 to predict severe disease was 0.75 (95% CI 0.63, 0.86). An ETCO2 cut off point of 30 mmHg correlated with a sensitivity of 93% and specificity of 32%. CONCLUSIONS: We observed a significant inverse relationship between ETCO2 and lactate in children presenting with suspected sepsis. A lower ETCO2 was predictive of severe disease.

Cognitive Function Following Diabetic Ketoacidosis in Children With New-Onset or Previously Diagnosed Type 1 Diabetes.

OBJECTIVE: This study assessed whether a single diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) episode is associated with cognitive declines in children with newly diagnosed type 1 diabetes and whether the same is true in children who had previously been diagnosed after accounting for variations in glycemic control and other relevant factors. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We prospectively enrolled 758 children, 6-18 years old, who presented with DKA in a randomized multisite clinical trial evaluating intravenous fluid protocols for DKA treatment. DKA was moderate/severe in 430 children and mild in 328 children. A total of 392 children with DKA had new onset of type 1 diabetes, and the rest were previously diagnosed. Neurocognitive assessment occurred 2-6 months after the DKA episode. A comparison group of 376 children with type 1 diabetes, but no DKA exposure, was also enrolled. RESULTS: Among all patients, moderate/severe DKA was associated with lower intelligence quotient (IQ) (ß = -0.12, P < 0.001), item-color recall (ß = -0.08, P = 0.010), and forward digit span (ß = -0.06, P = 0.04). Among newly diagnosed patients, moderate/severe DKA was associated with lower item-color recall (ß = -0.08, P = 0.04). Among previously diagnosed patients, repeated DKA exposure and higher HbA1c were independently associated with lower IQ (ß = -0.10 and ß = -0.09, respectively, P < 0.01) and higher HbA1c was associated with lower item-color recall (ß = -0.10, P = 0.007) after hypoglycemia, diabetes duration, and socioeconomic status were accounted for. CONCLUSIONS: A single DKA episode is associated with subtle memory declines soon after type 1 diabetes diagnosis. Sizable IQ declines are detectable in children with known diabetes, suggesting that DKA effects may be exacerbated in children with chronic exposure to hyperglycemia.

Hypertension during Diabetic Ketoacidosis in Children.

OBJECTIVES: To characterize hemodynamic alterations occurring during diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) in a large cohort of children and to identify clinical and biochemical factors associated with hypertension. STUDY DESIGN: This was a planned secondary analysis of data from the Pediatric Emergency Care Applied Research Network Fluid Therapies Under Investigation in DKA Study, a randomized clinical trial of fluid resuscitation protocols for children in DKA. Hemodynamic data (heart rate, blood pressure) from children with DKA were assessed in comparison with normal values for age and sex. Multivariable statistical modeling was used to explore clinical and laboratory predictors of hypertension. RESULTS: Among 1258 DKA episodes, hypertension was documented at presentation in 154 (12.2%) and developed during DKA treatment in an additional 196 (15.6%), resulting in a total of 350 DKA episodes (27.8%) in which hypertension occurred at some time. Factors associated with hypertension at presentation included more severe acidosis, (lower pH and lower pCO2), and stage 2 or 3 acute kidney injury. More severe acidosis and lower Glasgow Coma Scale scores were associated with hypertension occurring at any time during DKA treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Despite dehydration, hypertension occurs in a substantial number of children with DKA. Factors associated with hypertension include greater severity of acidosis, lower pCO2, and lower Glasgow Coma Scale scores during DKA treatment, suggesting that hypertension might be centrally mediated.

Does the Role of A Rapid Triage Provider Improve Pain Control in an Academic Pediatric Emergency Department?

Pediatric pain control in the emergency department (ED) remains problematic. This quantifiable metric may be positively affected by the utilization of a rapid triage provider (RTP). This is a retrospective case control study of pediatric patients requiring either ketorelac intravenous (IV) or morphine IV for painful conditions. Patients in the control group were managed according to standard nursing-driven triage process. Patients in the RTP group were seen by the standard triage team as well as by the RTP.We identified 114 patients who required IV pain medications. The mean time from arrival to pain medication administration for the RTP group as compared with the control group was 47 and 64 minutes (P = 0.02). Similarly, the mean time from arrival to IV pain medication order placement was 15 and 43 minutes (P < 0.01). An RTP improves pain control in the pediatric ED via more efficient order placement and IV pain medication administration.

Bedside Ultrasound for the Evaluation of Epidural Hematoma After Infant Lumbar Puncture.

BACKGROUND: Unsuccessful lumbar puncture (LP) attempts may lead to epidural hematoma (EH) formation within the spinal canal at the site of needle insertion, which can affect subsequent attempts. We aimed to determine the rate of EH formation after infant LP using bedside ultrasound (US). Furthermore, we aimed to correlate both perceived trauma during LP and cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) red blood cell (RBC) counts with EH formation. METHODS: We enrolled infants younger than 6 months who underwent LP in the emergency department. The primary investigator performed a bedside US of the lumbar spine, which was reviewed and interpreted by a pediatric radiologist. Treating clinicians performed the procedure and were asked to classify each attempt as "traumatic" or "atraumatic." Cerebral spinal fluid RBC counts were recorded. RESULTS: Thirty-one percent of patients had evidence of post-LP EH, 17% of which completely effaced the thecal sac. Forty percent of patients with at least 1 traumatic attempt had evidence of EH, whereas 25% without reported trauma showed EH (P = 0.17). Patients with EH had a median CSF RBC cell count of 186 cells/mm (range, 0-239,525) compared with 5 cells/mm (range, 0-3429) in patients without evidence of EH (P = 0.008). CONCLUSIONS: Epidural hematomas are frequent after LP. Perceived trauma during LP and CSF RBC counts are not adequate predictors of EH formation. Point-of-care US may be a valuable adjunct to help guide subsequent needle insertions sites for repeat attempts after an unsuccessful LP.

Is lactic acidosis predictive of outcomes in pediatric diabetic ketoacidosis?

OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study was to investigate the significance and prevalence of lactic acidosis in pediatric diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) presenting to the emergency department. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study of children (age ≤ 21 years) presenting to a tertiary care emergency department in DKA from December 1, 2015 to December 1, 2018. Patients needed to have DKA requiring admission to the pediatric intensive care unit and have had a lactate level collected while in the emergency department to be included. RESULTS: 92 patients resulting in 113 encounters had DKA and a lactate level collected in the emergency department. The mean lactate level was 3.5 mmol/L (±SD 2.1). 72 (63.7%) encounters had lactic acidosis (p < 0.001). There was no significant association between the presence of lactic acidosis and pediatric intensive care unit length of stay (p = 0.321), hospital length of stay (p = 0.426), morbidity (p = 0.552) and mortality (p = 1.000). Initial glucose levels were significantly higher in the patients presenting with lactic acidosis (p = 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Lactic acidosis is a common finding in pediatric DKA patients presenting to the emergency department. Serum lactate alone should not be used as an outcome predictor in pediatric DKA.

An Interesting Presentation of Lyme Pseudothrombophlebitis.

An 8-year-old boy presented to the emergency department with swelling and pain of his left knee and calf for approximately 1 week. His examination was significant for moderate knee effusion and swelling of the posterior calf with erythema and warmth of the affected areas. An ultrasound obtained at an outside hospital showed a large heterogeneous mass in the gastrocnemius, and a magnetic resonance imaging revealed a large, heterogeneous, rim-enhancing collection in the medial head of the left gastrocnemius muscle with surrounding myositis involving the gastrocnemius muscle. The child was taken to the operating room by the orthopedic team for drainage and irrigation of the knee effusion and of the collection in the gastrocnemius. The diagnosis of Lyme pseudothrombophlebitis was made through Lyme serology testing of aspirated fluid. He improved after this drainage but required a prolonged antibiotic course.

Utility of applying white blood cell cutoffs to non-diagnostic MRI and ultrasound studies for suspected pediatric appendicitis.

BACKGROUND: Non-contrast magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and ultrasound studies in pediatric patients with suspected appendicitis are often non-diagnostic. The primary objective of this investigation was to determine if combining these non-diagnostic imaging results with white blood cell (WBC) cutoffs improves their negative predictive values (NPVs). METHODS: A retrospective chart review was conducted including patients ≤18 years old with suspected appendicitis who had MRI performed with or without a preceding ultrasound study in a pediatric emergency department. Imaging results were sorted into 2 diagnostic and 5 non-diagnostic categories. NPVs were calculated for the non-diagnostic MRI and ultrasound categories with and without combining them with WBC cutoffs of <10.0 and <7.5 × 109/L. RESULTS: Of the 612 patients with MRI studies included, 402 had ultrasound studies performed. MRI with incomplete visualization of a normal appendix without secondary signs of appendicitis had an NPV of 97.9% that changed to 98.1% and 98.2% when combined with WBC cutoffs of <10.0 and <7.5, respectively. Ultrasound studies with incomplete visualization of a normal appendix without secondary signs had an NPV of 85.3% that improved to 94.8% and 96.5% when combined with WBC cutoffs of <10.0 and <7.5, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: In pediatric patients with suspected appendicitis, MRI studies with incomplete visualization of a normal appendix without secondary signs have a high NPV that does not significantly change with the use of these WBC cutoffs. In contrast, combining WBC cutoffs with ultrasound studies with the same interpretation identifies low-risk groups.

Clinical Trial of Fluid Infusion Rates for Pediatric Diabetic Ketoacidosis.

BACKGROUND: Diabetic ketoacidosis in children may cause brain injuries ranging from mild to severe. Whether intravenous fluids contribute to these injuries has been debated for decades. METHODS: We conducted a 13-center, randomized, controlled trial that examined the effects of the rate of administration and the sodium chloride content of intravenous fluids on neurologic outcomes in children with diabetic ketoacidosis. Children were randomly assigned to one of four treatment groups in a 2-by-2 factorial design (0.9% or 0.45% sodium chloride content and rapid or slow rate of administration). The primary outcome was a decline in mental status (two consecutive Glasgow Coma Scale scores of <14, on a scale ranging from 3 to 15, with lower scores indicating worse mental status) during treatment for diabetic ketoacidosis. Secondary outcomes included clinically apparent brain injury during treatment for diabetic ketoacidosis, short-term memory during treatment for diabetic ketoacidosis, and memory and IQ 2 to 6 months after recovery from diabetic ketoacidosis. RESULTS: A total of 1389 episodes of diabetic ketoacidosis were reported in 1255 children. The Glasgow Coma Scale score declined to less than 14 in 48 episodes (3.5%), and clinically apparent brain injury occurred in 12 episodes (0.9%). No significant differences among the treatment groups were observed with respect to the percentage of episodes in which the Glasgow Coma Scale score declined to below 14, the magnitude of decline in the Glasgow Coma Scale score, or the duration of time in which the Glasgow Coma Scale score was less than 14; with respect to the results of the tests of short-term memory; or with respect to the incidence of clinically apparent brain injury during treatment for diabetic ketoacidosis. Memory and IQ scores obtained after the children's recovery from diabetic ketoacidosis also did not differ significantly among the groups. Serious adverse events other than altered mental status were rare and occurred with similar frequency in all treatment groups. CONCLUSIONS: Neither the rate of administration nor the sodium chloride content of intravenous fluids significantly influenced neurologic outcomes in children with diabetic ketoacidosis. (Funded by the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development and the Health Resources and Services Administration; PECARN DKA FLUID ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT00629707 .).

Failure of Outpatient Management With Different Observation Times After Racemic Epinephrine for Croup.

BACKGROUND: Observation is necessary following racemic epinephrine (RE) for patients with croup. The ideal length of this observation period is unclear. OBJECTIVE: To compare the rate of failed outpatient management utilizing different observation times after RE administration for croup. METHODS: We performed a retrospective chart review of children with croup who required RE. Failure of treatment was defined as requiring a second RE treatment and/or returning to the pediatric emergency department for croup symptoms within 24 hours of discharge. RESULTS: The primary analysis considered patients observed between 2.1 and 3 hours compared with those observed for 3.1 to 4 hours. The patients in the 2.1- to 3-hour group had a higher rate of treatment failure (16.7% vs 7.1%, OR = 2.44, P < .01). CONCLUSIONS: Patients requiring RE for croup are more likely to have treatment failure if observed for between 2.1 and 3 hours as opposed to 3.1 to 4 hours.